yC-NRLF 


How  To  FEED  POULTRY 

FOR  ANY  PURPOSE 

WITH  PROFIT 


A  Complete  and  Authoritative  Treatise  on  Feeding  All  Classes  of  Poultry —Nutritive 

Values  of  Feeds  —  Formulas  to  Meet  Every  Probible  Requirement  and  for  Fowls 

Kept  Under  All  Conditions  —  Practical  Rules  for  Feeding,  and  How 

to  Adapt  Them  to    Individual  Requirements — A  Text    Book 

for  the  Beginner  —  A   Reference   Book   for  the  Expert 


BY  JOHN  H.  ROBINSON 


FULLY    ILLUSTRATED 


PRICE,    $  L.25 


Copyright  by 

RELIABLE   POULTRY   JOURNAL   PUBLISHING    COMPANY 

Quincy,    Illinois 

1920 


PUBLISHED    BY 

RELIABLE  POULTRY  JOURNAL  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 

QUINCY,    ILLINOIS,    U.S.A. 


CONX  E  NTS 


CHAPTER  I 
General  Factors  in  Poultry  Feeding 5 

CHAPTER  II 
Properties  and  Composition     of  Poultry  Feeds .  10 

CHAPTER  III 
Principles,  Methods  and  Systems  of  Feeding 26 

CHAPTER  IV 
Preparation  of  Feeds  for  Poultry ..  37 

CHAPTER  V 
Feeding  Chicks  From  Hatching  to  Weaning 44 

CHAPTER  VI 
Feeding  Chicks  From  Weaning  to   Maturity..... 59 

CHAPTER  VII 
Feeding  for  Egg  Producton 71 

CHAPTER  VIII 
Fattening  and  Finishing  Poultry  for  the  Table 85 

CHAPTER  IX 
Feeding  Breeding  and  Exhibition  Fowls .'. 90 

CHAPTER  X 
Feeding  Turkeys,  Peafowl,  Guineas  and  Pheasants 95 

CHAPTER  XI 
Feeding  and   Fattening   Ducks   98 

CHAPTER  XII 
Feeding  and  Fattening  Geese 103 

CHAPTER  XIII 

Growing  Feed  for  Poultry 108 

Index  .  112 


MAIN  L'liRARY-AGR'.CUI-TURE:  L 


C  HAPTEU    T • 


General  Factors  in  Poultry  Feeding 
af 

Economic  Conditions  Determine  Methods— Increased  Use  of  By-Product  Feeds  Makes  Knowledge  of  the  Science  of 
Feeding  Useful  to  Every  Poultry  Keeper — Nutritive  Requirements  and  Feeding  Habits  of  The  Several 
Kinds  of  Poultry — Comparison  of  Digestive  Organs  of  Animals  and  Birds — 
Relations  of  Art  and  Craft  in  Poultry  Feeding 


THE  aim  of  this  book  is 'to  give  a  working  know- 
ledge of  the  whole  subject  of  poultry  feeds  and 
feeding.  The  conditions  of  modern  life,  and  the 
economic  developments  in  poultry  culture,  and  in  other 
interests  directly  or  indirectly  related  to  it,  make  some 
acquaintance  with  the  scientific  side  of  the  subject  essen- 
tial. A  generation  ago,  under  what  we  have  been  accus- 
tomed to  call  natural  conditions  of  life  for  them,  o;  r 
several  kinds  of  domestic  poultry  fed  themselves,  or  \ver2 
fed,  almost  entirely  upon  the 
waste  products  of  farms, 
and  the  wastes  from  the 
homes  and  the  barns  and 
gardens  in  the  less  thickly 
populated  urban  districts. 
What  town  poultry  keepers 
could  not  supply  their  flocks 
from  such  sources  was  made 
up  by  purchase  of  grain 
from  nearby  farms. 

In  the  last  thirty  years  all 
this  has  been  changed  The 
increasing  demand  for  poul- 
try and  eggs  in  cities  has 
led  to  a  great  increase  n 
the  amount  of  poultry  kept 
in  sections  where  the  farmers 
have  no  surplus  stock  feed 
to  sell.  At  the  same  time. 
the  increasing  use  of  pre- 
pared cereals  for  human 
food  made  great  supplies  of 
by-products  suitable  for 
stock  feeding.  Such  by- 
products consist  of  the 
coarser,  less  palatable,  and 
least  nutritious  parts  of  the 
grains  from  which  they  are 
derived;  or  of  the  residue 
when  a  particular  food  ele- 
ment is  separated  from  *a 
certain  grain  to  give  a  hu- 
man food  having  peculiarly 
desirable  properties.  T  h  e 
profitable  use  of  such  by- 
products in  stock  feeding  is 
a  question  of  combining 
them  properly  with  other 
feeds  and  of  being  able  to 
obtain  them  at  least  as 
cheaply  as  the  feed  ele- 
ments they  contain  could  be 
bought  in  the  cheapest  com- 
mon whole  feed  article  that 
might  be  used  for  the  stock 
to  which  they  are  to  be  fed. 

It  follows  that  the  intel- 
ligent and  economical  use  of 


I.    K.    FELCH    FEEDING   A    FLOCK    OF   HIS    LIGHT 

BRAHMAS 
(From    a    snap-shot    by    J.    H.    Robinson,    May,    1901) 

I.  K.  Felch,  known  as  "The  Father  of  Poultry  Cul- 
ture in  America",  was  born  in  Natick,  Mass.,  January 
17,  1834,  and  died  there  August  31,  1918.  From  1846  until 
his  death  he  was  actively  interested  in  poultry  culture. 
The  first  record  of  an  exhibit  of  poultry  by  Mr.  Felch, 
and  his  first  published  statement  relating  to  poultry 
are  in  the  report  of  the  Middlesex  South  Agricultural 
Society's  Fair  at  Framingham,  Mass.,  September,  1864, 
published  in  "Massachusetts  Agriculture,  1864."  At  this 
fair  he  exhibited  a  cock  and  four  hens.  Golden  Penciled 
Hamburgs,  which  he  had  imported  in  1863,  in  competi- 
tion for  the  premium  awarded  for  best  pen  of  fowls  and 
best  statement  of  their  performance  for  six  months  pre- 
ceding- the  fair.  The  part  of  his  statement  relating  to 
their  production  reads:  "The  fowls  have  been  for  most  of 
the  time  enclosed  in  a  yard,  three  rods  long  and  one  rod 
wide,  and  their  food  has  been  nothing  but  corn,  with 
fresh  water  and  oyster  shells,  at  an  expense  Of  $3.75 
for  the  five  fowls  for  the  six  months.  The  four  hens 
have  laid  in  the  six  months  472  eggs,  and  one  of  the 
hens  has  been  sick  ten  weeks  of  the  time,  being  an  aver- 
age of  118  eggs  to  each  hen.  But  to  give  each  hen  her 
just  merits,  we  should  consider  that  the  sick  hen  only 
laid  about  half  as  many  eggs  as  each  of  the  others. 
Allowing  her  to  lay  60  eggs  would  leave  412  to  be  laid 
by  the  three  others — being  137  eggs  each.  One  of  the 
hens  has  in  my  judgment  laid  150  eggs  within  the  past 
six  months.  From  observations  we  know  that  she  laid 
constantly  and  more  than  the  others." 


these  feeds  requires  some  knowledge  of  the  chemical  com- 
position of  feed  stuffs,  and  of  the  scientific  principles  of 
feeding.  True,  the  abundance  of  feeds  of  this  kind  has 
led  manufacturers  and  dealers  to  give  particular  atten- 
tion to  the  production  of  commercial  mixtures  of  feed  in 
which  these  by-products  are  combined,  either  with  whole 
•feeds  or  with  other  by-products,  in  such  proportions  that 
the  mixture  is  equal  or  superior  in  value  to  some  com- 
mon whole  feed  for  which  it  is  offered  as  a  substitute, 

or  perhaps  is  a  complete  ra- 
tion for  a  specific  purpose; 
but  even  in  using  these  feeds 
the  poultry  keeper  needs  to 
know  something  of  their 
composition  and  of  the  prop- 
erties and  values  of  the  in- 
gredients which  they  contain. 
He  needs  this  not  so  much 
for  protection  against  adul- 
teration of  mixtures  by  un- 
s  c  r  u  p  u  1  ous  manufacturers 
and  dealers,  as  for  insurance 
against  the  contingency  of 
being  unable  to  obtain  sup- 
plies of  a  feed  that  he  has 
been  accustomed  to  us^,  and 
to  enable  him  to  combine  to 
the  best  advantage  the  use 
of  good  commercial  mixtures 
and  feeds  obtained  from 
other  sources. 

The  acquaintance  with  the 
scientific  side  of  the  subject 
that  serves  this  purpose  must 
be  correct  as  far  as  it  goes, 
but  need  not  go  farther  than 
familiarity  with  the  names 
and  properties  of  the  nutri- 
ent elements  in  feeds,  their 
general  relations  to  the  nu- 
tritive requirements  of  ani- 
mals—particularly poultry— 
and  simple  methods  of  calcu- 
lating the  values  of  rations. 
These  are  in  reality  matters 
which  under  modern  condi- 
tions are  no  longer  peculiar- 
ly scientific  but  have  become 
a  necessary  part  of  practical 
common  knowledge  of  feed- 
ing. For  that  reason  it 
,seems  best  in  a  popular  dis- 
cussion of  the  subject  to 
present  the  rudiments  of  the 
science  of  feeding  as  a  part 
of  the  practical  statement  of 
the  subject,  introducing  each 
in  its  appropriate  place  in 


the   general   discussion. 


HOW  TO  FEED*  EQ.ULTJtfriE3B.. ANY  PURPOSE  WITH  PROFIT 


A   MAINE    FARM    THAT    SPECIALIZED    IN    POULTRY  —  BREEDING    BARRED    PLYMOUTH    ROCKS    TO    STANDARD 

AND    FOR   EGGS   AND   MEAT 

Here  about  three  or  four  hundred  old  birds  and  from  a  thousand  to  twelve  hundred  chicks  had   the  range  of  the 
orchards,   pastures,   meadows,   and   some  of  the   cultivated  fields- — in    all    about   forty   acres — and    could    pick    a    consider- 
able part  of  their  living-  at  some  seasons. 


What  Poultry  Eat 

Of  poultry  in  general  it  may  be  said  that  their  diet 
is  more  like  that  of  man  than  the  diet  of  other  domestic 
animals.  The  pig  is  the  only  one  of  the  larger  animals 
that  is  an  omnivorous  eater,  and  while  the  pig  will  eat  meat 
of  any  kind  when  it  can  get  it,  it  seems  much  better  able 
to  subsist  on  a  vegetable  diet  than  most  kinds  of  poultry. 
In  comparing  the  natural  diets  of  the  most  common  kinds 
of  poultry  we  find  at  the  same  time  such  similarity  and 
such  adaptability  in  all,  that  they  may  be  kept  on  the 
same  ration,  with  slight  and  easily  made  variations,  and 
yet  such  differences  and  such  special  adaptabilities  that 
one  kind  may  thrive  on  feed  upon  which  another  would 
be  half  starved.  Their  differences  in  structure  and  habits 
of  life  also  enable  them  to  obtain  feed  under  different 
conditions.  The  likeness  of  the  several  common  kinds  of 
poultry  in  the  matter  of  feeding  is  of  advantage  to  the 
poultry  keeper  when  he  wishes  to  keep  two  or  more 
kinds  under  intensive  conditions.  Their  unlikeness  is  of 
advantage  when  he  wishes  to  utilize  as  fully  as  possible 
the  waste  feeds  on  a  large  area  of  land,  or  large  quan- 
tities of  particular  kinds  of  waste  or  cheap  feed. 

The  kinds  of  poultry  to  be  especially  considered  in  a 
general  work  on  poultry  feeding  are,  —  fowls,  turkeys, 


ducks,  and  geese.  The  guinea,  peafowl,  and  pheasant  re- 
quire substantially  the  same  feeding  as  the  turkey,  and  the 
swan  may  be  considered  a  large  goose.  We  can,  therefore, 
cover  the  whole  subject  thoroughly  by  treating  matters 
relating  to  the  feeding  of  fowls,  turkeys,  ducks,  and  geese 
ftlly,  and  then  making  shorter  special  statements  for  the 
other  kinds. 

Feeding  Habits  of  Fowls 

Fowls  are  the  most  domestic  of  poultry.  They  will 
forage  only  as  far  as  is  really  necessary  to  get  feed.  They 
appear  averse  to  getting  so  far  away  from  their  coop  or 
from  cover  where  they  feel  safe,  that  they  cannot  reach 
it  by  a  quick  dash  if  danger  threatens.  So  they  usually 
forage  over  a  limited  area,  working  over  it  thoroughly, 
but  rarely  going  far  in  any  direction.  The  ordinary  farm 
flock  of  fowls,  with  the  chickens  that  are  raised  each  year, 
generally  take  all  the  poultry  feed  there  is  about  a  farm 
house,  its  outbuildings,  and  the  nearby  land.  That  is  why 
so  many  farms  in  America  have  only  fowls, — no  turkeys, 
ducks,  or  geese.  Fowls  are,  on  the  whole,  the  most  use- 
ful and  profitable  kind  of  poultry;  therefore  they  take 
precedence  of  the  others  except  where  particular  interest 
in  one  of  the  others  results  in  either  limiting  the  number 
of  fowls  kept  or  making  special  provision  for  it  beyond 
the  range  of  the  fowls. 


A    MASSACHUSETTS    MARKET    POULTRY     PLANT    IN  A    LARGE    BACK    YARD    WHERE    1200    TO    2000    WINTER 

CHICKENS  WERE   GROWN   A  YEAR 

Here    everything   consumed    by    the    birds   had    to    be  bought  for  cash.     Only  nearness  to  good  markets,  good  work 
and    a    good    product    make    poultry    growing    profitable  under   such  conditions. 


GENERAL  FACTORS  IN  POULTRY  FEEDING 


Fowls  eat  almost  any  tender  grass  and  weeds.  They 
eat  all  kinds  of  common  grain  and  most  large  weed 
seeds,  but  little  grass  seed  or  small  weed  seeds.  Even 
small  chickens  are  not  at  all  keen  for  grass  and  weed 
seeds  so  small  that  old  fowls  pass  them  by.  Fowls  eat 
most  kinds  of  insects  and  worms  that  are  large  enough 
to  be  readily  visible,  but  seem  quite  indifferent  to  the 
very  -small  insects  that  attack  vegetation.  They  do  not, 
as  far  as  the  writer  has  observed,  eat  ants,  but  they  are 
fond  of  "ant  eggs."  They  also  are  fond  of  nearly  all 
kinds  of  fruit  and  vegetables— the  only  popular  article^  of 
human  food  in  this  line  which  they  do  not  like  being 
beans. 

Feeding  Habits  of  Turkeys 

Turkeys  are  much  less  domestic  by  nature  than  fowls. 
Being  larger,  and  requiring  more  feed, — and  having  also  the 
same  reluctance  in  consuming  small  bits  of  nutriment,  tur- 


the  nearest  water  and  remain  there  all  day.  Nor  will  they 
be  particular  about  coming  home  at  night.  Their  natural 
feed  is  the  small  animal  life  they  find  in  the  water,  and 
especially  along  the  margins  of  ponds  and  streams.  With 
this  they  eat  a  great  deal  of  coarse  and  tender  green 
stuff.  They  probably  get  little  grain  in  wild  life,  yet  in 
domestication  they  can  stand  a  heavy  diet  of  ground 
grain. 

Feeding  Habits  of  Geese 

Geese,  so  like  ducks  in  appearance  that  people  who  do 
not  know  both  well  often  find  it  difficult  to  distinguish 
between  large  ducks  and  small  geese,  are  the  most  herbi- 
vorous of  poultry.  They  can  live  entirely  on  grass  and 
similar  green  forage,  with  such  animal  feed  as  they  may 
get  from  their  range.  While  they  prefer  marshy  land  and 
access  to  the  water,  they  will  thrive  on  any  good  pasture. 
They  like  grain,  and  make  their  greatest  growth  when 


A    NEW    ENGLAND    INTENSIVE    POULTRY    FARM— WHITE    BIRCH    POULTRY   YARDS,    BRIDGEWATER,    MASS. 

The  houses  for  laying-breeding  fowls  are  in  the  background  at  the  right.  The  small  houses  at :  the .left ;  are 
for  breeding  ducks.  In  the  middle  foreground  and  center  are  brooders  for  young  chickens;  the  colony  houses  across 
the  rear  are  for  weaned  chicks.  Small  fruit  trees  may  be  seen  in  all  yards. 


keys  range  much  more  widely  than  fowls.  They  have  not 
the  same  attachment  for  home,  and  when  foraging  is  poor 
on  their  accustomed  range  they  are  inclined  to  wander 
away,  looking  for  a  better  feeding  ground.  This  habit 
makes  them  especially  valuable  in  the  destruction  of 
grasshoppers  and  other  insects  which  often  come  in  great 
numbers  and  move  rapidly  over  large  areas.  Insects  and 
grain,  with  some  tender  vegetation,  are  their  principal 
diet.  They  will  eat  most  of  the  things  that  fowls  eat, 
but  their  wanderlust  generally  leads  them  to  the  big 
pasture  fields  and  woods,  leaving  the  products  of  gardens 
and  orchards  to  their  less  enterprising  neighbors. 

Feeding  Habits  of  Ducks 

Ducks  are  the  most  carnivorous  of  our  domestic 
birds.  They  are  inclined  to  be  as  domestic  as  fowls — 
provided  the  dooryard  affords  «them  an  opportunity  to 
dabble  in  water.  Otherwise  they  will,  if  at  liberty,  seek 


given  a  liberal  grain  ration  with  unstinted  green  feed. 
They  will  go  long  distances  to  feed,  but  almost  invariably 
come  home  long  before  nightfall. 

The  foregoing  general  statements  of  the  feeding 
habits  of  fowls,  turkeys,  ducks,  and  geese  show  how  these 
different  kinds  of  poultry  are  adapted  to  the  utilization 
of  feeds  which  generally  are  not  consumed  by  or  not 
.available  to  other  kinds  of  farm  live  stock,  and  how, 
'while  using  such  wastes,  they  also  do  good  service  in 
destroying  all  kinds  of  insect  pests.  In  all  arrangements 
for  poultry  on  farms,  therefore,  the  first  thing  considered 
should  be  the  possible  service  of  poultry  in  these  matters. 
This  is  in  most  cases  limited  by  the  necessity  for  pro- 
tecting the  birds  from  natural  enemies.  Yet  it  usually  is 
possible  to  do  much  more  in  this  direction  than  is  com- 
monly done,  and  it  makes  the  problems  of  feeding  poultry 
on  the  farm  much  easier,  and  the  profits  correspondingly 
gi  eater  and  more  satisfactory. 


HOW  TO  FEED  POULTRY  FOR  ANY  PURPOSE  WITH  PROFIT 


The   Digestive   Organs   of  Poultry 

There  are  some  things  in  the  feeding  of  poultry  that 
are  better  understood  if  one  keeps  in  mind  the  resemb- 
lances, as  well  as  the  differences,  in  the  three  types  of  di- 
gestive system  which  are  found  in  our  domestic  animals 
and  birds. 

The  horse  masticates  its  feed  thoroughly  as  it  takes 
it  into  the  mouth;  the  feed  then  passes  into  the  stomach, 
where  digestion  takes  place,  and  from  this  into  the  small 
intestine  where  it  is  assimilated. 

In  the  pig  the  digestive  system  and  the  processes  are 
similar  to  those  in  the  horse,  but  mastication  is  not  so 
thorough.  Pigs  cannot  digest  dry  fodders  and  hard  grains 
as  fully  as  horses  do,  although  they  have  strong  teeth 
and  powerful  jaws. 

In  the  ruminants — cows  and  sheep — there  are  said  to 
be  four  stomachs,  though  only  the  last  in  the  series  is 
properly  a  stomach.  A  cow  partly  masticates  her  feed  as 
she  eats  it.  When  the  feed  is  swallowed  it  passes  into  the 

first  stomach  or 
paunch,  which  is 
so  connected 
with  the  second 
stomach  that  the 
contents  shift 
back  and  forth 
from  one  to  the 
other  with  a 
churning  motion. 
After  a  period  of 
this  action  the 
feed  passes  into 
the  third  stom- 
ach  where  it 
forms  into  balls, 
which  are  re- 
turned  to  the 
mouth  for  com- 
plete mastication. 
When  swallowed 
this  time  it  pass- 
es into  the  fourth 
stomach,  which 
is  the  true  stom- 
ach, and  from 
there  to  the  in- 
testines. 

We  are  accus- 
tomed to  say 
that  birds  have 
no  teeth,  but  the 
beaks  and  bills  of 

birds  are  to  all  intents  and  purposes  a  combination  of 
incisor  and  canine  teeth.  So  birds  have  teeth  for  biting, 
cutting  and  tearing,  but  not  for  mastication.  The  throat 
is  very  wide  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  creature, 
and  the  gullet  capable  of  great  distention.  Birds  can 
swallow  feed  in  much  larger  pieces  in  proportion  to  their 
size,  than  most  other  animals  can. 

The  feed  swallowed  by  a  bird  passes  into  the  crop, 
which  is  an  enlargement  of  the  gullet.  In  the  land  birds, 
fowls,  turkeys,  etc.,  the  crop  is  globular  and  quite  large. 
In  ducks,  geese,  and  other  aquatic  birds,  there  is  no  such 
distinct  development  of  the  crop,  but  the  whole  gullet 
is  capable  of  great  distention,  and  when  the  birds  are  able 
to  eat  greedily  of  a  bulky  feed,  this  distention  of  the 
gullet  may  be  observed  the  entire  length  of  the  neck. 


THE   DIGESTIVE    ORGANS    OF 
THE  FOWL 

a,  Tongue;  (upper  bill  removed);  b, 
Esophagus;  c,  Crop;  d.  Esophagus;  e, 
True  Stomach;  f,  Gizzard;  g,  Duode- 
num; h,  Small  Intestine;  i,  Caeca;  k, 
Rectum;  m,  Cloaca;  o.  Liver;  p,  Spleen; 
r,  Gall  Bladder;  s,  Pancreas.  Courtesy 
of  the  New  Jersey  Experiment  Station. 


From  the  crop  of  a  bird  the  feed  passes  into  the 
stomach  proper,  which  is  a  very  small  organ,  and  from 
that  to  the  gizzard — a  muscular  sac  having  for  its  inner 
surface  a  thick,  tough,  corrugated  skin.  Here  it  is  re- 
duced to  a  pulp,  and  in  this  condition  it  passes  to  the  in- 
testines. According  to  traditional  popular  belief  the  giz- 
zard itself  is  not  capable  of  masticating  the  feed,  and — to 
assist  it  in  that  function — the  bird  swallows  bits  of 
gravel  or  any  hard  substance  that  will  give  a  number  of 
sharp  cutting  edges.  Full  discussion  of  that  matter  is 
deferred  to  the  appropriate  place  in  the  discussion  of 
feeds,  but  it  may  be  pointed  out  here  that  in  birds  the 
feed  is  subjected  to  the  strong  action  of  the  gastric  juice 
before  going  to  the  gizzard,  while  in  animals  which  mas- 
ticate their  feed  completely  in  the  mouth,  the  action  of  the 
gastric  juice  comes  after  mastication. 

Nutritive  Requirements  of  Poultry 

The  body  of  a  bird  consists  of  a  framework  of  bone, 
to  which  are  attached  the  muscles  that  control  it;  a  per- 
manent external  covering  of  skin,  in  which  grows  a 
changeable  covering  of  feathers;  and  the  internal  organs 
of  respiration,  circulation,  digestion,  sensation,  and  re- 
production, which  are  required  to  sustain  the  organism 
and  the  species.  Most  of  the  internal  organs  are  essen- 
tially enlargements  and  peculiar  developments  of  the 
skin  which  lines  the  inside,  just  as  it  covers  the  outside 
of  ihe  body. 

Certain  facts  about  the  composition  of  the  body  are 
apparent  on  ordinary  observation.  We  can  see  that  the 
skeleton  contains  a  great  deal  of  lime,  and — in  the  body 
of  a  bird  that  was  in  normally  good  condition  when  killed 
— we  can  see  more  or  less  fat.  We  also  see  that  this  fat 
is  in  different  amounts  in  different  birds,  and  often  in 
different  places.  And  observing  birds  that  were  known  to 
be  in  health,  and  perhaps  producing  well  when  killed, 
though  not  in  what  we  consider  prime  condition  for  the 
table,  we  naturally  and  rightly  infer  that  fat  is  not  an 
essential  part  of  the  organism  as  are  the  bones,  muscles, 
skin,  etc.  In  extremely  fat  birds  it  is  easy  to  see  that 
the  excess  of  fat  may  both  hinder  locomotion  and  interfere 
with  the  functions  of  the  internal  organs. 

The  mineral  matter  of  the  bones — and  the  fat.  when 
present,  are  the  only  parts  of  the  body  of  a  bird  in  which 
we  seem  to  recognize  elements  of  the  body  in  form  like 
that  in  which  they  may  be  seen  elesewhere.  The  rest  of 
the  structure  appears  quite  unlike  the  grains  and  vege- 
tables which  observation  showed  us  make  up  so  large  a 
part  of  the  diet  of  our  domestic  birds.  For  information  as 
to  the  elements  which  compose  flesh  and  feathers  we 
turn  to  the  chemist. 

Chemistry  tells  us  that  flesh,  skin,  etc.  of  birds  are 
made  of  nitrogenous  material  to  which  is  given  the 
general  name  protein.  The  chemical  analysis  of  poultry 
meat  finds  in  it  principally  water,  protein,  and  fat.  The 
substance  of  all  fleshy  tissues  is  formed  from  protein, 
and  it  is  customary  to  consider  the  fat  found  in  them  as 
not  an  essential  part  of  their  structure.  This,  however,  is 
a  too-narrow  view,  overlooking  the  function  of  the  fat, 
or  oil,  in  various  parts  of  the  body  in  keeping  it  in  good 
order.  Even  the  bones  contain  fat.  Of  the  chemistry  of 
feathers  we  know  little,  for  they  have  no  feed  value,  and 
chemical  investigation  in  this  line  has  so  far  been  almost 
entirely  devoted  to  the  things  that  are  used  to  feed  either 
men  or  animals.  It  would  appear, "  however,  that  they 
contain  a  considerable  proportion  of  protein. 

The  analysis  of  meat  does  not  show  the  presence  of 


GENERAL  FACTORS  IN  POULTRY 'FEEDING 


carbonaceous  elements  other  than  fat, — except  in  very 
small  quantities  in  the  liver.  This  absence  of  the  starches 
and  sugars  from  the  dead  body  does  not  mean  that  they 
are  not  highly  essential  to  the  nourishment  of  the  living 
body.  All  that  it  signifies  is  that  they  are  not  stored  in 
the  body  in  the  form  in  which  they  are  taken  into  it. 
That  poultry  need  such  feeds,  and  in  large  quantities,  is 
plain,  for  they  consume  them,  and  generally  prefer  what 
the  feeder  considers  a  too-carbonaceous  ration  to  a 
more  nitrogenous  one.  The  reason  for  this  is  apparent 
when  we  consider  that  what  an  animal  eats  not  only 
builds  up  and  keeps  in  repair  its  body,  and  provides  ma- 
terial for  a  product,  such  as  milk  or  eggs,  but  must  first 
keep  up  the  heat  of  the  body  and  provide  the  energy  re- 
quired for  every  motion  and  function. 


day's  rations  meet  the  needs  of  the  birds.  But  poultry 
of  all  kinds  are  much  like  human  beings  in  their  tastes  and 
in  their  likes  and  dislikes  for  particular  things. 

The  common  feed  elements  they  require  can  be  pro- 
vided in  many  different  combinations.  Birds  accustomed 
to  a  particular  combination  are  often  so  reluctant  to  take 
another  that  they  will  eat  of  it  only  enough  to  maintain 
them,  but  not  enough  to  give  theii  best  growth  or  pro- 
duction. We  cannot  say  that  this  is  always  purely  taste 
or  whim — something  that  they  should  be  forced  to  over- 
come, and  will  overcome  if  they  can  get  nothing  else. 
Birds  brought  up  on  a  certain  diet  have  their  digest've 
systems  especially  adapted  to  it,  perhaps  to  such  an  extent 
that  they  are  poorly  adapted  to  some  other  diet  which  may 
be  given  them.  To  force  them  to  a  diet  they  apparently  do 


LOW-LYING    PASTURE    LANDS    AND    THEIR    PONDS  AND   BROOKS   ARE   IDEAL  FOR   DUCKS   AND   GEESE. 

Scene  on   Brook  View  Farm,   West  Newbury,   Mass. 


In  the  requirements  for  the  growth  and  maintenance 
of  their  bodies,  poultry  are  like  animals,  but  in  the  re- 
quirements for  reproduction  another  element  comes  in. 
For  the  shells  of  their  eggs  they  need  much  more  lime 
than  is  contained  in  any  vegetable  or  flesh  feed.  This  they 
evidently  obtain  in  a  state  of  nature  by  eating  small  bits 
of  stone,  shell,  etc.,  that  will  supply  it.  In  domestication, 
with  egg  production  extended  through  much  longer  sea- 
sons, and  with  birds  kept  so  long  on  the  same  areas  that 
all  material  of  this  kind  at  or  near  the  surface  has  been 
consumed,  it  becomes  necessary  to  supply  shell-making 
material  libe'rally. 

Art  and  Craft  in  Poultry  Feeding 

For  reasons  which  will  appear  as  the  subject  is  de- 
veloped in  succeeding  chapters,  the  feeding  of  poultry 
could  not  be  reduced  to  an  accurate  science,  even  if  all 
poultry  of  the  same  kind  had  precisely  the  same  taste 
and  capacity  for  digesting  and  assimilating  feed.  It 
would  still  be  necessary  for  the  feeder  to  rely  upon  his 
judgment  in  many  circumstances,  and  to  be  governed 
largely  by  temperature  in  his  endeavors  to  make  each 


not  relish  is  not  good  policy,  unless  it  is  known  to  be  a 
good  ration,  and  unless  also  it  is  a  ration  which  the  poul- 
try keeper  intends  to  feed  regularly. 

From  what  was  said  earlier  in  this  chapter  the  reader 
will  rightly  infer  that  poultry  can  be  brought  to  adapt 
themselves  to  almost  any  diet  or  system  of  feeding  by 
which  they  obtain  enough  to  eat.  But  this  is  true  of  poul- 
try, or  of  a  kind  of  poultry,  only  in  a  general  way.  Individ- 
ual birds  vary  both  in  the  extent  of  their  adaptability,  and 
in  the  direction  of  adaptability;  and  the  adaptation  of  a 
flock  to  a  diet  or  a  system  of  feeding  unsuited  to  some  of 
them  is  really  brought  about  by  the  extermination  of  the 
individuals  not  adapted  to  it.  They  do  not  grow  as  oth- 
ers do.  They  are  more  susceptible  to  disease.  So  by  a 
process  of  natural  selection  they  disappear  entirely  within 
a  few  years. 

Whether  it  is  policy  for  a  poultry  keeper  thus  to 
adapt  his  flock  to  a  particular  system,  depends  upon  his 
object  in  poultry  keeping  and  the  real  merit  of  the  sys- 
tem. In  general,  the  good  feeder  works  by  the  opposite 
rule,  studying  by  every  means  in  his  power  to  provide  the 
rations  that  are  most  palatable  to  the  birds  and  that  give 
the  finest  development. 


CHAPTER     II 


Properties  and  Composition  of  Poultry  Feeds 

What  Cheny.stry  Finds  in  Feeds — Peculiar  Properties  and  Uses  of   Cereal,   Vegetable,  Animal,  and   Mineral   Feeds 
Profitable  Use  of  Commercial  Mixtures  and  Condimental    Feeds  —  Table    of  •  Analyses     and 
Nutritive  Values  of  Feeds  of  All  Kinds — Explanation    of    Mathematical 

Calculation   of  Rations 


WHILE    it   is    chiefly    the    nutritive    elements   in 
feeds  that  concern  the  poultry  feeder,  most  of 
the  whole  feeds  and  many  of  the  by-products 
contain  a  considerable  percentage  of  indigestible  matter. 
The  presence  of  this  in  a  feed  is  often  immaterial,  as  far 
as  the  results  of  using  the  feed  are  concerned,  but  may 
considerably  affect  the  cost.    Some  indigestible  matter  is 
positively  injurious,  while   some  may  be  beneficial  under 
certain  circumstances.    These  points  have  to  be  considered 

in  connection  with 
the  articles  to 
which  they  apply. 

Chemical  analy- 
sis of  feeds  finds 
in  them  a  great 
many  different  in- 
gredients, but  in 
the  ordinary  dis- 
cussion of  matters 
relating  to  f  e  e  d- 
ing,  these  are  con- 
sidered in  the  few 
groups  to  one  or 

NEVER    TOO    YOUNG    TO    BEGIN    TO    the  other  of  which 
LEARN    POULTRY    FEEDING  ,          r      ,u 

each     of     the    sep- 
Note     equipment     to     suit     scale     of    _rof          i 

operations — a     lard     pail     for     mixing    arat€ 

feed,    an    old    milk    pan    for    the    water    m  a  v    be  assigned 

which  the  boy  has  learned  ducks  must 

always  have  with  their  feed.  These     are — pro- 

tein,     carbohy- 

diates,  fats,  ash,  and  fiber.    Mention  of  the  functions   of 

these  was  made  in  the  preceding  chapter.   Here  we  have  to 

consider  their  character  more  particularly. 

Protein — The  most  familiar  example  of  nearly  pure 
protein  is  the  white  of  egg,  which  contains  no  carbohy- 
drate, just  a  trace  of  fat,  and  about  one  per  cent  of  ash 
— with  about  seven  times  its  bulk  of  water.  This  is  of 
peculiar  interest  in  a  study  of  poultry  feeding  because  in 
the  results  of  the  process  of  incubation  we  see  a  mmure 
germ,  quickened  into  life  by  the  continuous  application  of 
a  suitable  degree  of  heat,  grow  to  a  perfectly  developed 
chick,  by  a  mode  of  assimilation  of  the  tissue-forming 
material  which  the  albumen  of  the  egg  provides.  The 
solids  of  lean  meat  and  blood  are  about  ninety  per  cent 
or  more  protein.  In  milk  the  protein  is  in  the  form  of 
casein.  Pure,  dry  protein  is  a  hard,  horny  substance;  and 
in  grains  the  hardness  of  the  grain  depends  upon  the 
amount  of  protein. 

Carbohydrates — The  apple  and  potato  are  the  com- 
mon food  articles  which  contain  the  highest  percentages 
of  carbohydrates,  and  the  lowest  of  both  protein  and  fat. 
The  white  potato  is  almost  clear  starch.  In  the  sweet 
potato  a  part  of  the  carbonaceous  material  is  in  the  form 
of  sugar.  In  the  common  grains  the  amount  of  starch 
varies  from  fifty  to  seventy  per  cent.  Grains  and  seeds 
which  contain  large  amounts  of  oil  are  those  in  which  a 
considerable  part  of  the  common  proportion  of  starch 
takes  the  form  of  fat. 

Fats — The  familiar  pure  fats  used  in  human  food  are 
10 


butter,  lard,  oleomargarine,  and  the  various  vegetable 
oils.  The  common  grains  contain  relatively  small  percent- 
ages of  fat,  running  from  about  two  per  cent  in  wheat, 
barley,  and  rye,  to  five  per  cent  in  oats,  and  five  to  eight 
per  cent  in  corn.  The  poultry  feeds  having  the  highest 
percentages  of  fat  are  the  meat  by-products,  beef  and 
pork  scrap,  which  may  contain  as  high  as  thirty  to  forty 
per  cent  of  that  element,  and  cottonseed  and  linseed 
products,  which  have  the  same  wide  range  of  fat  content. 

Ash — The  common  ash  or  mineral  matters  in  feeds 
are  phosphates  of  lime,  soda,  potash,  etc.  Chemistry  finds 
some  mineral  matter  in  all  feed  articles,  and  some  of  the 
grasses  and  forage  plants  contain  high  percentages  of  it. 

Fiber — The  fiber  in  feeds  is  generally  indigestible, 
and  consideration  of  it  in  a  study  of  feeding  deals  mostly 
with  the  question  of  the  effect  of  the  fiber  in  an  article 
upon  its  palatability,  and  its  possible  irritating  effects 
when  too  much  is  taken  into  the  digestive  system.  The 
fibers  are  largely  carbonaceous  in  character,  though  lack- 
ing in  nutritive  quality.  Oat  hulls  are  the  most  familiar 
form  of  fiber  in  poultry  feeds. 

Vitamines — Besides  the  five  classes  of  food  elements 
just  described,  investigators  in  food  research  have  re- 
cently demonstrated  the  presence  in  most  food  articles  in 
a  natural  state,  of  certain  elements  of  great  importance  in 
nutrition  which  have  been  called  vitamines.  The  chemical 
nature  of  these  has  not  yet  been  satisfactorily  determined. 


AN   OCCUPATION   FOR   DECLINING   YEARS 

This  man,  when  he  became  too  old  to  work  at  his 
regular  trade,  built  a  small  poultry  plant  at  the  edge 
of  the  woods,  and  with  about  two  hundred  hens  and  the 
chickens  raised  to  keep  up  the  flock  kept  the  wolf  from 
the  door  in  his  old  age  without  working  beyond  his 
strength.  His  feed  pail  is  larger  than  that  of  the  boy 
above,  but  his  work  and  equipment  are  not  "on  a  busi- 
ness footing." 


PROPERTIES  AND  COMPOSITION  OF  POULTRY  FEEDS 


11 


COLONY    HOUSES    FOR    LAYING    STOCK    ON    FARM     OF  F.  W.  C.  ALMY,  TIVERTON  FOUR  CORNERS,  R.  I. 


Their  importance  in  nutrition  is  evident,  but  the  amounts 
necessary  or  most  economical  in  rations  have  not  yet  been 
found  experimentally.  In  the  present  state  of  knowledge 
of  the  subject  it  appears  that  questions  as  to  the  use  of 
vitamines  are  of  little — if  any — practical  interest  to  stock 
feeders,  because  to  a  very  great  extent  the  conditions 
which  reduce  the  normal  quantities  of  vitamines  in  human 
diet,  correspondingly  increase  the  supply  jn  by-products 


quantities  of  water-soluble  vitamines,  but  much  of  the 
fat-soluble.  Lard  and  sugar  contain  no  vitamines.  Ordin- 
ary lean  meat  contains  little  of  either  kind,  but  liver, 
kidney  and  heart  have  a  good  deal  of  both.  Leaves  and 
roots  of  plants  contain  much  water-soluble  vitamines,  and 
any  oil  in  them  may  contain  fat-soluble  vitamines.  It  does 
not  appear  that  there  is  any  danger  of  poultry  fed  a 
suitable  variety  of  feeds  lacking  a  sufficient  supply  of 


BUSINESS-LIKE1     POULTRY     FEEDING — IT     PAYS   TO    USE    HORSE    POWER    WHEN    THE    SCALE    OF 

OPERATIONS   WARRANTS 

This -is  a  common  type  of  feed  wagon,  locally  called  a  "dough  cart",  long-  used  in  Southeastern  New  England. 
All  the  feed  and  water  for  many  flocks  can  be  carried  at  one  load.  The  type  of  poultry  farming  with  the  equipment 
shown  on  this  page  has  been  more  continuously  successful  for  large  farm  flocks  than  any  other. 


of  the  manufacture  of  human  foods,  which  are  used  for 
stock  feeding.  Thus  in  the  finer  grades  of  wheat  flour 
the  vitamines  are  largely  absent,  nearly  all  in  the  wheat 
remaining  in  the  coarser  by-products. 

Two  kinds  of  vitamines  are  recognized, — water-solu- 
ble and  fat-soluble.  The  first  are  said  to  be  essential  to 
sustain  life,  the  others  for  the  growth  of  the  young. 
Both  are  found  in  whole  milk.  Butter  has  insiginficant 


vitamines.  Hence  special  attention  to  them  is  not  called 
for  unless  it  should  be  clearly  shown  that  their  use  in 
some  specified  way  gives  unmistakable  greater  efficiency 
in  feeds,  and  especially  in  the  use  of  cheap  feeds. 

Physical  Properties  of  Feeds 

In   feeding    practice    it  is    often    found  that    poultry 
show   decided   preferences   between   feeds  having  approx- 


COOPS     FOR     YOUNG     CHICKENS     REARED  WITH    HENS    ON    FARM    OF    F.    W.    C.    ALMY, 
TIVERTON   FOUR   CORNERS,    RHODE    ISLAND 


12 


HOW  TO  FEED  POULTRY  FOR  ANY  PURPOSE  WITH  PROFIT 


imately  the  same  chemical  composition  so  far  as  the  prin- 
cipal nutrients  are  concerned.  To  a  limited  extent  such 
preferences  may  depend  upon  those  nutrients  being  some- 
what different  in  the  form  in  which  they  occur;  but  as  far 
as  ordinary  observation  shows,  the  birds  are  governed  in 
their  preferences  largely  by  the  ease  of  obtaining  feed, 
and  by  whether  the  act  of  swallowing  it  is  attended  by 
unpleasant  sensations.  They  do  not  appear  to  have  any 
nice  sense  of  taste,  but  do  seem  to  show  some  judgment 
as  to  whether  a  particular  feed  before  them  is  worth 
eating.  In  general  they  take  the  feed  that  they  can  get 
easiest  and  show  aversion  to  those  containing  large  pro- 
portions of  dry  fiber. 

Corn  and  Corn  Products 

Corn  is  at  the  same  time  the  most  valuable  and  the 
most  dangerous  of  the  grains  fed  to  poultry.  Its  value 
comes  from  its  cheapness  (under  normal  conditions),  its 
general  availability,  its  high  digestibility,  and  the  fact 
that  most  kinds  of  poultry  prefer  it  to  other  grains.  Its 
dangerousness  is  due  to  the  fact  that  it  is  the  hardest 


AFTER  THE  CORN  IS  CUT  ON  A  NEW  YORK  FARM 

The  chickens  have  been  in  it  all  summer  but  not  visible  to  the  camera.    Chickens 
and  corn  are  an  ever-profitable  combination. 

grain  properly  to  ripen,  cure,  and  preserve;  and  that  even 
when  the  whole  corn  has  been  well  cured,  the  products 
milled  from  it  are  apt  to  heat  and  mold  in  warm  weather, 
and  when  fed  in  that  state  may  be  highly  injurious. 
Avoidance  of  the  dangers  of  corn  is  a  matter  of  care  and 
good  judgment  on  the  part  of  the  poultry  keeper.  Any 
unsoundness  or  unwholesomeness  in  corn  products  is 
easily  detected  by  inspection,  or  such  simple  tests  as 
may  be  applied  by  the  poultryman. 

The  general  preference  of  poultry  for  corn  is  by  no 
means  an  exclusive  one.  In  a  mixture  containing  corn 
they  are  apt  to  eat  the  corn  first,  whether  it  is  whole  or 
cracked,  but  do  not  invariably  do  so.  If  they  are  fed  up 
on  corn  and  have  had  little  of  other  grains,  they 
will  often  lose  appetite  for  corn  and  eat  greedily  of  a 
grain  like  oats  or  rye,  which  ordinarily  they  would  leave 
until  all  the  corn  had  been  consumed.  The  large  size  of 
the  grains  of  whole  corn,  and  its  bright  color  evidently 
have  much  to  do  with  its  attraction  for  poultry,  for 'it 
may  be  observed  that  they  are  much  more  partial  to 
cracked  corn  that  is  clean  and  bright  in  appearance  than 
to  that  which  is  bleached  and  dull  looking.  They  will  show 
this  preference  immediately  when  unattractive  corn  is 


placed  before  them.  Hence  we  cannot  conclude  that  it  is 
perception  of  the  inferior  ouality  of  the  dull-looking  corn 
that  makes  them  reluctant  to  eat  it. 

Corn  may  be  fed  to  poultry  in  any  form — green  or 
ripe,  whole,  cracked,  coarsely  or  finely  ground,  raw,  or 
rooked.  It  is  not  economy  to  feed  green  corn  to  poultry, 
and  the  only  occasion  for  feeding  it  is  to  use  green  sweet 
corn  from  the  garden  that  has  become  too  hard  for  th^ 
table.  Where  the  quantity  of  this  is  so  small  that  it  is 
not  worth  while  to  go  to  the  trouble  of  thoroughly  curing 
it,  it  is  as  well  to  feed  it  to  poultry  at  once,  for  such  odds 
and  ends  of  sweet  corn  left  about  are  apt  to  mold  before 
they  cure,  or  to  be  eaten  by  mice.  Many  people  are  afraid 
to  feed  unripe  corn  to  poultry  because  they  have  heard 
much  of  the  dangers  of  feeding  new  corn  to  other  stock, 
especially  to  horses.  As  far  as  feeding  to  poultry  is  con- 
cerned there  is  no  danger,  provided  the  corn  is  sound  and 
clean.  If  it  has  heated  or  is  moldy  there  may  be  risk  in 
using  it  freely,  but  in  all  cases  of  damaged  or  inferior 
feeds  it  is  a  safe  rule  to  use  the  damaged  article  in  such 
amounts  as  will  be  readily  eaten 
once  a  day  by  poultry  that  are  well 
fed  at  other  times  with  sound  feeds. 
This  practice  enables  a  poultry 
keeper  to  use  to  advantage  feeds 
that  may  have  become  damaged  on 
his  hands,  or  that  can  be  obtained 
at  a  price  low  enough  really  to  jus- 
tify their  use. 

In  buying  corn  and  corn  products 
the  appearance  and  texture  are  gen- 
erally fair  indications  of  their  qual- 
ity. The  protein  and  the  fat  in  a 
grain  of  corn  are  principally  in  the 
germ  and  near  the  outer  surface, 
the  starch  appearing  as  the  soft  in- 
side portion  of  the  kernel.  The  more 
protein  and  fat  the  corn  contains 
the  larger  will  be  the  hard,  darker- 
colored  portions  of  the  grain.  By 
splitting  a  whole  grain  of  corn  or 
by  noting  the  relative  proportions 
of  hard  and  highly-colored  and  soft, 
lighter-colored  parts  of  the  particles 

of  cracked  corn  one  can  tell  whether  it  is  relatively  high 
in  feeding  value  or  not.  Of  course  these  determinations 
are  not  accurate,  but  with  experience  the  feeder's  judg- 
ment may  become  good  enough  for  practical  purposes. 
The  quality  and  texture  of  white  corn  are  not  as  plain  to 
observation  as  in  yellow  corn,  but  the  same  difference  ex- 
ists, and  the  judgment  of  the  eye  may  be  reinforced  in 
the  inspection  of  cracked  white  corn  by  testing  the  par- 
ticles with  the  teeth.  The  color — (that  is,  white  or  yel- 
low), does  not  influence  the  quality. 

The  quality  of  corn  meal  may  be  judged  by  the  ap- 
pearance, weight,  smell,  taste,  and  the  effect  of  scalding 
with  boiling  water.  Meal  from  ripe,  hard,  dry  corn  is 
bright  and  clean  looking,  and  swells  immediately  when 
wet  with  boiling  water  of  which  it  will  take  up  a  con- 
siderable quantity,  making  a  sticky  mush.  Meal  from 
poor  corn  is  dull  in  color,  light  in  weight,  often  smells 
stale  or  moldy,  and  when  tasted  lacks  the  flavor  of  good 
meal.  Wet  with  boiling  water  it  does  not  make  an  ad- 
hesive mass,  but  the  particles  remain  separate  and,  when 
the  mixture  stands,  tend  to  settle  to  the  bottom  like  sand, 
leaving  the  water  on  top.  There  are,  of  course,  all  grades 
between  good  and  poor  meal,  and  the  feeder  learns  by 


PROPERTIES  AND  COMPOSITION  OF  POULTRY  FEEDS 


13 


A   FAMILY   OF  WHITE   TURKEY'S   FORAGING    ON    A    RHODE    ISLAND    FARM 
Turkfvs  are  methodical  feeders,  and  specialists  in  the  extermination    of    buss    destructive    to    grass    and    grain    crops. 


long  observation  to  judge  each  of  the  numerous  grades  at 
about  its  actual  feeding  value. 

It  is  usually,  though  not  always  possible  to  get  corn 
products  of  good  quality,  if  purchasers  insist  upon  having 
no  other  and  return  inferior  goods  when  such  are  de- 
livered to  them.  There  occasionally  are  seasons  when 
early  frosts  stop  the  growth  of  corn  throughout  large 
sections  before  it  is  thoroughly  ripe,  and  after  such  a 
season  little  corn  of  really  good  quality  may  be  available 
for  stock  feeding. 

Corn  and  cob  meal  is  not  a  common  commercial  pro- 
duct. Its  use  appears  to  be  of  most  interest  to  poultry 
keepers  who  raise  considerable  quantities  of  corn,  and 
who  suppose  that  corn  and  cob  meal  would  make  a  suit- 
able substitute  for  a  mixture  of  corn  meal  with  wheat 
bran.  As  ground  at  home  it  is  usually  so  coarse  and  so 
overloaded  with  fiber  that  poultry  will  eat  very  little  of  it. 
As  occasionally  found  on  the  market  it  is  much  finer, 
and  appears  to  be  a  mixture  of  corn  chop  and  corn  bran 
w-ith  not  much,  if  any,  of  the  cob  in  it.  In  general  it  is 
very  poor  economy  to  try  to  use  the  home-ground  article, 
and  the  commercial  product  is  valuable  only  for  limited  use 
with  high  concentrates. 

Corn  bran  is  the  coarse  outer  covering  of  the  grain 
separated  from  the  meal.  Corn  feed  meal  is  a  mixture  of 
coarse  meal  and  bran  separated  from  fine  table  meal. 
Corn  gluten  meal,  corn  gluten  feed,  and  corn  germ  meal 


are  by-products  of  the  manufacture  of  starch  and  glucose. 
Their  comparative  feed  values  are  indicated  by  the  state- 
ments of  percentages  of  the  various  feed  elements  which 
they  contain,  as  given  in  the  table  on  page  23. 

Wheat  and  Wheat  Products 

Wheat  is  commonly  rated  the  best  grain  for  poultry. 
Its  superiority  is  not  due  to  greater  feeding  value,  but  to 
better  keeping  qualities  and  an  almost  complete  absence 
of  risk  in  feeding.  Cases  of  sickness  from  the  use  of 
damaged  wheat,  while  not  unknown,  are  by  no  means 
common.  Large  quantities  of  wheat  that  have  been 
damaged  by  water  are  dried  and  sold  as  poultry  feed. 
Where  the.  damage  is  slight  and  the  wheat  in  fair  con- 
dition, about  as  good  results  may  be  obtained  as  from 
sound  wheat.  Where  the  damage  is  great,  as  when  wjieat 
is  badly  scorched,  it  does  not  seem  to  injure  poultry,  but 
because  of  its  unpalatability  they  will  not  eat  it  freely 
enough  to  thrive  or  lay  well  on  it.  Wheat  of  good  milling 
quality  is  rarely  offered  for  poultry  feed  except  in  wheat- 
growing  sections  where  it  may  be  the  cheapest  of  the 
grains  available,  or  in  small  lots  by  growers  in  sections 
where  so  little  is  grown  that  there  are  not  facilities  for 
milling  or  transporting  it  to  mills.  The  feed  wheat  on 
the  market  generally  is  of  a  grade  not  desirable  for  mil- 
ling, but  as  good  as  any  for  feeding  purposes.  Shrunken, 
shrivelled,  and  frozen  wheat,  and  ordinary  wheat  screen- 


DUCKS  ON  THE  MARGIN  OF  A  LONG  ISLAND  RIVER  —  ATLANTIC    DUCK    FARM,    SPEONK 
Ducks  are  often  grown  in  dry  yards,  but  the  work    is    much    lighter  'when    they    have    water    runs. 


14 


HOW  TO  FEED  POULTRY  FOR  ANY  PURPOSE  WITH  PROFIT 


A  MARKET   POULTRY  FARM  IN  THE   SOUTH    SHORE    DISTRICT    OF    MASSACHUSETTS 
(Continuation   of   this   view   on   page    15) 


ings,  composed  of  small  and  broken  wheat,  often  appear 
to  be  good  for  poultry  feeding  as  the  best  commercial 
grades.  As  applied  to  wheat  screenings  this  means  clean 
screenings,  free  from  large  quantities  of  weed  seeds  and 
chaff. 

The  red  wheats  are  generally  better  value  than  the 
white,  being  richer  in  protein,  which  makes  them  harder. 
The  best  way  to  test  the  quality  of  wheat  is  by  biting 
the  grains  with  the  front  teeth.  Poultry  eat  wheat  more 
readily  than  any  other  grain  but  corn.  The  difference  in 
feeding  value  between  good  corn  and  wheat,  as  noted  in 
ordinary  practice,  is  imperceptible.  Such  advantages  as  one 
or  the  other  may  appear  to  have  in  particular  instances 
are  plainly  due  to  conditions  under  which  it  is,  for  the 
time  being,  the  more  suitable  feed.  Experiments  made  at 
some  of  the  experiment  stations  to  determine  the  relative 
values  of  corn  and  wheat  have  given  the  same  conclu- 
sions, though  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  methods 
adopted  sometimes  have  not  been  such  as  allowed  a  clear 
comparison.  However,  the  conclusions  arrived  at  gener- 
ally accord  with  the  observations  of  practical  poultrymen. 

Wheat  by-products  are  the  parts  of  the  grain  separ- 
ated from  flour  in  milling.  They  vary,  according  to  the 
process  of  milling  and  the  kind  and  grade  of  flour,  to 
such  an  extent  that  for  many  years  there  has  been  great 
confusion  in  the  identification  of  the  different  kinds  and 
grades  by  the  names  that  are  applied  to  them.  Since 
nearly  all  states  now  have  feeding-stuff  inspection  laws, 


A   MODEST   BEGINNING 

The  business  farm  shown  above  heg-fn  in  tv-is  ITV-I- 
try  house  on  a  town  lot.  When  Mr.  H.  D.  Smith,  Rock- 
land,  Mass.,  located  on  the  farm  shown  above,  he  took 
the  "first  poultry  house"  with  him. 


and  products  of  this  kind  originating  in  one  state  may  be, 
and  commonly  are,  shipped  to  many  others,  the  officials 
in  charge  of  feeding-stuff  inspections  have  cooperated 
to  standardize  the  terms  used  in  describing  them.  The 
definitions  of  wheat  products  as  agreed  upon  by  them 
are: — 

"Wheat  bran  is  the  coarse  outer  coating  of  the  wheat 
berry  obtained  in  the  usual  milling  process  from  wheat 
that  has  been  cleaned  and  scoured." 

"Shorts  or  standard  middlings  are  the  fine  particles  of 
the  outer  and  inner  bran  separated  from  bran  and  white 
middlings." 

"White  middlings  or  wheat  white  middlings  are  that 
part  of  the  offal  of  wheat  intermediate  between  shorts  or 
standard  shorts  or  standard  middlings  and  red  dog.  This 
term  correctly  applies  to  high  grade  middlings,  low  in 
bran  content,  thus  being  highly  digestible.  An  off-grade 
flour  which  contains  2.5  per  cent  or  less  of  fat  and  13% 
or  less  of  protein  should  not  be  confused  with  white 
middlings." 

"Wheat  mixed  feed  or  ship  stuff  is  a  mixture  of  the 
products  other  than  flour  obtained  from  the  milling  of 
wheat." 

"Red  dog  is  a  low-grade  wheat  flour  containing  the 
finer  particles  of  bran." 

In  the  feeding  of  poultry  the  wheat  products  are  gen- 
erally combined  with  other  milled  feeds,  principally  the 
corn  products,  though  oat  products  are  often  used  also. 
The  most  common  commercial  form  is  the  mixed  feed 
or  ship  stuff.  Where  "mixed  feed"  is  mentioned  as  an  in- 
gredient of  mashes  this  is  what  is  meant  unless  it  is 
specified  that  the  reference  is  to  one  of  the  many  mixtures 
of  different  grain  products  put  out  by  dealers  as  complete 
feeds.  These  last  would  be  more  appropriately  and  plainly 
described  as  mashes. 

Bran  alone  has  little  nutritive  value  and  is  obviously 
not  attractive  to  poultry.  Mixed  with  fine  corn  meal  it 
gives  desirable  bulk  to  the  mass,  prevents  it  from  packing 
in  the  crop,  and  supplies  mineral  elements  in  which  the 
corn  meal  is  lacking.  Middlings  mixed  alone  with  water 
make  a  sticky,  pasty  mess.  When  bran  and  middlings — 
wheat  mixed  feed — are  mixed  with  water,  the  consistency 
and  palatableness  are  improved  but  still  are  not  as  good 
as  when  corn  meal  is  added.  A  combination  of  these  three 
ingredients,  with  a  little  meat  meal  added,  gives  a  simple 
mash,  of  ingredients  almost  everywhere  obtainable,  and 
one  of  high  efficiency.  Hence  the  corn  and  wheat  pro- 
ducts are  the  usual  base  in  standard  mashes,  variations 
and  substitutions  being  made  to  utilize  other  ingredients 
that  may  be  locally  or  occasionally  more  economical.  Fur- 


PROPERTIES  AND  COMPOSITION  OF  POULTRY  FEEDS  JT 


15 


MARKET  POULTRY  FARM — SHOWING  COLONY  HOU 

(Continuation   of 

ther  discussion   of  this  is   deferred   until   the   methods   of 
feeding  are  taken  up. 

Oats  and  Oat  Products 

The  value  of  oats  for  poultry  feed  is  extremely  vari- 
able. Heavy  oats  with  plump,  full  kernels  and  thin  hulls 
;ire  quite  equal  in  value  to  corn  and  wheat.  A  moderate 
amount  of  hull  does  not  seem  to  reduce  either  their  palat- 
ability  or  their  nourishing  properties,  as  compared  with 
vhat  the  birds  will  eat  readily  of  the  other  grains  men- 
fioned.  In  the  British  Isles  oats  are  commonly  rated  the 
best  of  grains  for  poultry,  and  many  American  writers, 
following  English  authority,  have  unstintedly  praised 
oats,  and  as  unsparingly  condemned  corn  as  poultry  feed. 
The  reason  for  the  preference  for  oats  in  England  is  that 
the  oats  produced  in  the  British  Isles  are  uncommonly 
good,  while  the  climate  is  unsuited  to  corn.  In  America, 
on  the  contrary,  most  of  the  oats  produced  are  of  medium 
to  poor  quality,  while  good  corn  may  be  grown  almost 
everywhere.  In  the  South  oats  are  almost  always  poor 
and  light.  Tn  the  Northern  States  the  quality  is  much 
better  and  the  production  much  greater,  yet  enormous 
quantities  of  oats  that  seem  to  be  entirely  suitable  for 
horse  feed,  are  of-little  value  for  poultry  feed.  Canadian 
oats  are,  on  the  whole,  better  than  our  best  northern  oats, 
and  the  English  opinion  of  the  value  of  oats  in  poultry 
feeding  is  more  applicable  there  than  on  this  side  of  the 
boundary  line.  Another  reason  for  the  English  objection 
to  corn  is  that  it  makes  yellow  fat  in  poultry,  whereas 
their  markets  prefer  white  fat. 

The  ordinary  examination  of  oats  for  quality  is  made 
by  simply  removing  the  hull  from  the  grain.  Anyone  who 
has  been  feeding  oats  without  examining  them,  and  has 
perhaps  wondered  why  his  poultry  did  not  appear  to  like 
oats  and  would  eat  little  even  when  kept  short  of  other 
grains  to  compel  them  to  do  so,  will  be  surprised,  when 
he  examines  an  ordinary  sample  of  the  oats  he  has  been 
feeding,  to  find  how  few  grains  contain  large  plump  ker- 
nels, and  how  many  are  almost  entirely  hull.  It  does  not 
pay  to  buy  oats  for  poultry  unless  they  are  good  enough 
so  that  the  birds,  eat  them  readily  as  a  part  of  a  mixed- 
grain  ration.  Hulled  oats  make  good  poultry  feed,  but 
the  price  should  not  be  higher  than  good  feeding  wheat. 

Ground  oats  and  mixtures  of  oats  with  other  ground 
grains  are  common  feed  articles.  Their  value  in  either 
case  depends  upon  the  original  quality  of  the  grain,  and 
the  freedom  of  the  mixture  from  additions  of  surplus  oat 
offal  from  other  sources.  It  is  not  possible  for  anyone  to 
say  positively  upon  inspection  whether  a  sample  of  ground 
oats  or  mixed  feed  including  ground  oats,  having  an  ex- 
cessive amount  of  hull,  was  made  of  very  poor  oats,  or 


S'ES   FOR   GROWING   CHICKENS   ALL  THE    WAY    BACK 
view   on   page    14) 

was  adulterated.  The  only  question  that  really  concerns 
the  buyer  is  whether  the  proportion  of  hull  is  greater  than 
desirable  in  a  poultry  feed.  If  it  is,  he  should  reject  the 
article,  for  the  excess  of  hull  makes  it  an  undesirable — an 
expensive  and  a  dangerous  feed.  The  hull  in  ground  feeds, 
beyond  a  very  small  amount,  is  highly  irritating  to  the  in- 
testines of  poultry,  and  dangerously  so  in  young  poultry. 
On  the  other  hand,  good  ground  oats,  reasonably  free 
from  hulls,  are  a  desirable  and  valuable  feed  to  use  either 
separately  or  in  mixtures.  So  the  intelligent  and  econom- 
ical use  of  oats  is  a  question  of  obtaining  a  good  article 
at  an  appropriate  price.  Rolled  oats  and  oatmeal  are 
widely  recommended  as  superior  feeds  for  young  chick- 
ens. They  are  good  feeds  when  not  stale,  but  whether 
they  are  the  best  feeds  to  use  in  any  case  depends  uporu 
the  quality  and  prices  of  other  available  chick  feeds,  and! 
especially  upon  whether  the  corn  obtainable  is  good  and 
safe  to  feed. 

Barley  and  Barley  Products 

Barley  as  a  poultry  feed  occupies  a  place  between 
wheat  and  oats,  as  to  its  palatability,  but  is  much  less 
generally  available  than  the  other  grains  so  far  considered. 
Nowhere  but  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  where  the  bulk  of  our 
crop  of  barley  is  grown,  is  it  regularly  available  for  poul- 
try feeding.  In  the  markets  throughout  the  rest  of  the 
country  the  supplies  of  barley  are  irregular  and  the  prices 
compared  with  those  of  the  grains  to  be  had  in  abundance 
are  inclined  to  be  erratic.  This  last  feature  is  probably 
due  to  the  readiness  of  poultry  keepers  to  pay  a  premium 
for  a  grain  that  is  rather  scarce,  thinking  that  they  can 
afford  to  do  so  for  the  sake  of  giving  variety  to  the 


ONE  OF  THE  COLONY  HOUSES  ON  FARM  OF 
H.  D.  SMITH 


16 


HOW  TO  FEED  POULTRY  FOR  ANY  PURPOSE  WITH  PROFIT 


ration.  If  poultry  keepers  generally  would  make  a  study 
of  the  relative  feeding  values  of  grains  as  apparent  by  the 
proportions  of  hull  and  waste  that  they  contain,  which  can 
be  determined  by  ordinary  inspection,  and  then  buy  ac- 
cordingly, the  prices  of  all  sorts  of  grains  would  soon 
be  properly  adjusted  to  the  price  of  corn,  which  under 
normal  conditions  is  nearly  everywhere  the  cheapest 
grain  obtainable 

Barley  and  wheat  have  about  the  same  nutritive  value, 
except  that  barley  contains  a  larger  percentage  of  fiber, 
the  grain  having  a  hull.  Hulled  barley  and  wheat  should 
be  bought  for  poultry  feed  at  the  same  price.  Barley  witii 
the  hull  is  usually  worth  10  to  15  cents  a  bushel,  or  15  to 
25  cents  a  hundred,  less  than  an  ordinary  grade  of  feed 
wheat.  The  proportion  of  hull  varies  greatly,  just  as  it 
does  in  oats,  though  good  barley  is  much  plumper  than 
the  best  oats,  and  the  poorest  barley  is  rarely  as  poor  as 
a  large  part  of  the  oats  on  the  market.  Poultry  that  have 
never  had  barley  sometimes  scour  badly  if  suddenly 
changed  to  a  diet  containing  much  of  it,  but  the  trouble 
r  rally  disappears  within  a  few  days.  If  it  does  not,  it 


CHICKS  IN  BROODERS  IN  GRASSY  YARDS'  AT  GRANDVIKW  FARM,  AURORA, 
N.    Y. — GRAIN    GROWING    IN    FIELD    BEYOND 


may  fairly  be  assumed  that  some  other  things  in  the  ration 
or  in  the  conditions  to  which  the  birds  are  subjected  need 
attention  and  co.rection. 

Brewers'  grains  and  malt  sprouts,  though  commonly 
described  as  poultry  feeds,  are  not  generally  used  for  that 
purpose,  their  chief  use  being  as  cattle  feeds.  The  prohibi- 
tion of  the  manufacture  of  liquors  in  the  United  States 
will  take  this  class  of  products  off  the  market,  and  it  is 
entirely  problematical  whether  barley  will  continue  to  be 
grown  in  quantities  that  will  make  it  an  important  item 
for  poultry  feed.  Its  prime  use  has  been  for  brewing,  and 
its  availability  for  stock  feeding  has  depended  upon  the 
amount  of  surplus  over  what  the  brewers  could  use. 

Rye  and  Rye  Products 

Rye  is  produced  in  America  in  much  less  quantity 
than  any  other  of  the  common  grains.  The  chief  use  of 
the  plant  here  is  for  green  forage  for  all  kinds  of  live 
stock,  and  for  the  straw  which  is  especially  valuable  for 
bedding  and  litter  by  reason  of  its  length  and  extreme 
toughness.  During  the  recent  war  period  rye  flour  was 
extensively  mixed  with  wheat  flour  for  human  food,  and 
the  value  of  rye  in  feeding  animals  appears  to  be  greater 
in  mixtures  with  corn  than  when  the  attempt  is  made  to 
feed  rye  or  rye  products  alone.  Rye  is  said  to  produce 
digestive  disorders,  and  anyone  not  accustomed  to  it  who 


will  eat  a  little  pure  rye  bread  will  discover  that  it  has 
in  much  greater  degree  the  acrid  properties  sometimes 
noted  in  oat  preparations.  In  parts  of  Europe  where  rye 
is  more  extensively  grown  than  here,  it  is  used  for  feeding 
all  kinds  of  live  stock,  but  authorities  on  feeding  in  those 
countries  advise  against  feeding  it  alone,  and  also  say  that 
it  gives  better  results  fed  cooked  than  when  given  raw. 
On  the  whole,  the  American  poultry  feeder  need  not  con- 
cern himself  much  about  this  line  of  products.  If  he  has 
rye  on  hand  or  can  get  it  cheap  he  can  use  it  in  a  limited 
way  with  other  ingredients. 

Buckwheat  and  Buckwheat  Products 
Poultry  seem  to  like  buckwheat  in  limited  quantities, 
but  not  to  care  to  make  a  full  meal  of  it  as  they  do  of 
corn,  wheat,  or  good  oats.  There  is  not  much  buckwheat 
available  for  poultry  feeding  in  this  country  and  what 
there  is,  is  often  of  inferior  quality,  which  perhaps  ac- 
counts for  the  reluctance  of  the  birds  to  eat  it  freely. 
In  Europe,  and  particularly  in  France,  buckwheat  and  its 
by-products,  groats,  bran  and  middlings,  are  much  used 
in  feeding  poultry.  French  buckwheat  is  said  to  be 
superior  to  that  grown  in  England. 
Some  poultrymen  here  occasionally 
grow  buckwheat  on  land  they  want 
to  freshen,  and  use  the  unthreshed 
straw  as  litter,  letting  the  poultry 
feed  on  the  grain  as  they  thresh  it 
out  by  scratching.  This  practice 
might  profitably  be  followed  much 
more  widely  than  it  is. 

Miscellaneous  Grains  and  Seeds 

Broom-corn  seed,  sorghum  seed, 
f  axseed,  cottonseed,  kafir  corn,  millet, 
rice,  etc.,  are  suitable  for  poultry  feed, 
but  are  not  generally  obtainable  at 
prices  that  compare  favorably  with 
the  common  staples.  Broom-corn 
seed,  hulled,  has  given  as  good  re- 
sults as  wheat  .after  the  fowls  be- 
came accustomed  .to  it.  Kafir  corn  is 
now  grown  quite  extensively  on  the 
dry  lands  of  the  Southwest  and  Far 

West,  and  there  is  an  increasing  use  of  it  as  poultry  feed 
in  and  near  the  places  where  it  is  grown,  but  elsewhere 
supplies  of  it  are  irregular  and,  as  a  rule,  the  prices  asked 
are  too  high.  In  warm  climates  that  are  too  dry  for  corn, 
poultrymen  should  use  kafir  corn  in  the  yards  and  on 
available  land,  just  as  corn  is  used  in  places  that  suit  it. 

Millet  has  not  the  value  commonly  attributed  to  it  as 
poultry  feed.  Large  birds  eat  its  small  grains  reluctantly, 
and  chicks  thrive  best  if  the  amount  of  millet  in  their  diet 
is  limited  to  what  they  will  take  when  well  fed  on  grains 
that  they  like  better.  Any  attempt  to  force  them  to  eat 
considerable  quantities  of  millet  leads  to  underfeeding  and 
restricted  growth.  Used  moderately  as  an  extra,  it  is  a 
good  feed,  but  even  so  it  is  not  an  economical  feed  unless 
the  price  is  close  to  the  price  of  corn.  . 

Rice  is  an  excellent  feed  for  poultry,  but  the  produc- 
tion of  it  in  this  country  is  so  small,  as  compared  with 
that  of  the  common  field  grains  adapted  to  general  cul- 
tivation, that  the  amount  used  is  insignificant.  It  consists 
mostly  of  broken  and  damaged  rice,  principally  in  prepared 
chick  feeds.  In  this  form  rice  may  be  given  with  entire 
freedom.  There  is  no  risk  in  its  use,  but  the  rice  by- 
products (bran  and  hulls)  should  be' given  with  more  care. 
The  bran  is  apt  to  contain  a  large  mixture  of  hulls  which 
are  not  only  worthless,  but  may  be  injurious. 


PROPERTIES  AND  COMPOSITION  OF  POULTRY  FEEDS 


17 


Cottonseed  and  flaxseed  are  of  interest  to  the  poul- 
try feeder  chiefly  for  their  by-products.  The  primary 
commercial  value  of  these  seeds — apart  from  their  value 
for  planting — is  in  the  oils  extracted  from  them.  In  this 
process  the  seeds  are  pressed  into  cakes  containing  all  the 
other  elements  and  the  residue  of  oil  which  the  process 
did  not  remove.  The  earlier  processes  of  extracting  such 
oils, left  in  the  cake  a  high  per  cent  of  fat,  but  improved 
processes  have  so  reduced  this  that  the  meal  into  which 
the  flaxseed  cake  is  ground  before  being  placed  on  the 
market  as  a  feed  is  very  low  in  fat.  Cottonseed  meal  is 
much  higher  in  fat,  because  the  oil  is  not  so  greatly  in 
demand  as  linseed  oil.  The  chief  value  in  commercial  oil 
meal  is  the  protein  it  contains  while  cottonseed  meal  is 
rich  in  both  protein  and  fat  and,  since  meat  by-products 
have  risen  to  unusually  high  prices,  there  is  an  increasing 
use  of  both  for  poultry  feed.  A  number  of  experiment 
stations  have  studied  the  relative  values  of  cottonseed 
meal,  and  meat  scrap,  and  the  general  conclusion  arrived 
at  is  that  it  is  a  valuable  substitute  for  meat  scraps  when 


According  to  tradition,  sunflower  seed  is  a  valuable 
feed  for  poultry,  a  little  of  it  added  to  the  ration  being 
(so  it  is  claimed)  peculiarly  valuable  for  hens  while  molt- 
ing. This  appears  to  be  another  of  the  cases  where  the 
apparent  value  of  a  feed  depends  upon  the  combination  in 
which  it  is  used.  In  a  ration  lacking  in  fat,  plump,  well- 
filled  sunflower  seeds  given  as  liberally  as  the  fowls 
would  eat  them,  would  undoubtedly  show  marked  bene- 
ficial results,  but  ordinary  observation  cannot  discover  any 
advantage  in  feeding  them  to  birds  that  have  a  liberal 
amount  of  corn  and  of  meat  scrap  or  oil  meal.  Much  of 
the  sunflower  seed  given  to  poultry  is  immature  and  con- 
tains little  nutriment— so  little  that  well-fed  birds  will 
hardly  touch  it.  If  one  buys  sunflower  seed  he  should 
examine  it  to  make  sure  that  there  is  something  more  than 
hull,  and  he  should  keep  in  mind  that  an  average  good 
sample  is  about  one-third  hull,  and  the  actual  nutritive 
value  less  than  that  of  corn.  A  little  of  such  an  article 
is  useful  for  the  sake  of  variety,  and  for  that  purpose  it 
may  be  worth  a  little  more  than  the  staple  grains  used  in 


COLONIES    OP   WEANED    CHICKS   IN   ORCHARD    ON   A   NEW   YORK   FARM— AN  IDEAL  PLACE   TO   GROW   CHICKENS 
Windfall  apples  make   good   feed   and   the   chickens   destroy   insects   that   would    spoil    fruit. 


only  ordinary  results  are  sought,  but  when  the  best  re- 
sults are  desired  meat  scraps  are  more  efficient  because 
they  are  more  palatable.  Hence  the  partial  substitution  of 
cottonseed  or  linseed  meal  for  meat  scraps  appears  as 
the  best  method  of  securing  maximum  production  at  min- 
imum cost,  when  meat  products  are  high  and  these  con- 
centrated meals  .relatively  cheap.  The  substitution  of  one 
of  them  for  half  the  meat  scrap  in  a  ration  does  not  ap- 
pear to  make  it  less  palatable  to  the  birds,  or  in  any 
way  to  diminish  its  feeding  value,  and  the  saving  in  cost, 
while  small  on  one  day's  ration  makes  quite  a  substantial 
amount  when  applied  to  long  periods  and  large  flocks. 

Most  kinds  of  poultry  are  fond  of  peas  but  care  little 
for  beans.  This  seems  quite  singular  in  view  of  the  fact 
that  in  their  composition  these  two  seeds  are  much  alike — 
as  far  as  principal  feed  elements  are  concerned.  It  is  also 
remarkable  that  beans — one  of  the  most  universally  popu- 
lar human  foods,  have  no  attraction  for  poultry  in  their 
raw  state,  while  peas  are  eaten  greedily.  Most  kinds  of 
poultry  will  eat  raw,  dry  beans  only  under  pressure  of 
great  hunger,  and  then  only  in  limited  quantities.  Thor- 
oughly cooked  beans  they  will  eat  freely  and  with  apparent 
relish,  and  they  also  readily  eat  bean  meal  when  mixed 
with  other  mill  products. 


the  ration,  but  it  is  extravagant  to  pay  several  times  the 
common  prices;  for  such  extras,  as  poultry  keepers  fre- 
quently do.  . 

Vegetable  Feeds 

Vegetable  substances  used  for  feeding  poultry,  other 
than  grains  and  their  products,  may  be  divided  into  two 
general  classes;  leaves  and  forage,  and  roots  and  fruits. 

All  kinds  of  poultry  will  eat  tender,  succulent  green 
stuff  in  much  larger  quantities  than  are  generally  given 
to  them  in  confinement,  but  a  great  many  things  of  this 
kind  they  care  for  only  in  their  tender  stages  of  growth, 
eating  them  at  other  stages  only  when  nothing  else  of 
the  kind  can  be  obtained.  Cabbage  is  the  most  useful 
vegetable  of  this  class  for  poultry  feeding,  considering  its 
keeping  qualities  and  the  possibility  of  having  supplies 
through  almost  the  entire  year. 

For  feeding  as  cut,,  or  for  growing  in  poultry  yards 
where  the  birds  can  eat  of  it  at  will,  rape  is  popular.  Let- 
tuce is  perhaps  the  favorite  with  the  birds,  but  as  a  rule 
the  only  lettuce  that  can  be  profitably  fed  to  them  is  that 
which  has  passed  the  stage  at  which  it  is  used  for  human 
food.  These  three  things  poultry  will  eat  regularly  and 
freely.  Most  of  the  common  root  crop  tops,  such  as  beet 


18 


HOW  TO  FEED  POULTRY  FOR  ANY  PURPOSE  WITH  PROFIT 


leaves,  onion  tops,  etc.,  they  eat  in  small  quantities  when 
tender,  fresh  and  crisp,  but  do  not  care  much  about  when 
tough  or  wilted.  Grass  that  is  kept  short,  and  all  kinds  of 
leaves  of  weeds  growing  in  such  grass,  are  eaten  by  poul- 
try with  great  relish  and  in  surprisingly  large  quantities; 
but  as  soon  as  any  such  vegetation  gets  a  little  hard  and 
tough  they  eat  it  sparingly  if  anything  else  more  succu- 
lent can  be  obtained. 

Of  roots,  the  most  useful  for  poultry  feeding  and  the 
one  most  widely  grown  expressly  for  the  purpose,  is  the 
mangel-wurzel  beet.  After  this  come  sugar  beets  and  large 
table  beets.  Turnips  are  widely  used,  but  as  they  some- 
times give  an  unpleasant  flavor  to  eggs  poultrymen  have 
to  be  more  cautious  in  feeding  them.  The  bad  flavor  from 
turnips  seems  to  be  due  sometimes  to  the  "rankness"  of 
turnips  grown  on  strong  land,  and  sometimes  to  the  birds- 
eating  partially  decayed  turnips. 

Stock  carrots,  table  carrots,  potatoes,  and  onions  all 


BREEDING   DUCKS    AT   ATLANTIC    FARM,    SPBONK,    L.    I. 

These  ducks  can  get  a  good  deal  of  animal  feed  from  the  water,  and  therefore 
do  not  need  extraordinary  amounts  of  it  in  their  ration. 

make  good  poultry  feed.  The  question  of  their  use  is  a 
matter  of  availability  or  cost.  Where  there  is  a 'surplus 
of  such  stuff  of  unmarketable  grade,  it  is  cheap  poultry 
feed.  If  it  has  to  be  bought,  the  price  should  be  based 
not  on  the  value  of  the  marketable  stuff  of  the  same  kind 
for  human  food,  but  on  the  value  of  the  waste  product 
in  comparison  with  the  staple  poultry  feeds.  This  point 
will  be  explained  more  fully  in  connection  with  the  dis- 
cussion of  the  values  of  feeds  as  shfjwn  by  the  general 

measurement  of  nutritive  value. 

Of  common  fruits  the  apple  is  most  generally  avail- 
able for  poultry  and  has  the  advantage  that  spotted  and 

bruised  fruit  will  keep  much  longer  than  similar  fruit  of 

peaches,  pears,  and  plums.    None  of  these  things  need  go 

to  waste  if  there  is  poultry  to  which  they  may  be  fed,  and 

birds  that  have  at  the  same  time  free  access  to  corn  or 

wheat  and  to  any  of  these,  seem  to  get  a  well-balanced 

ration.    Tomatoes  are  in  the 

same    class  with    the    things 

just    mentioned,    but    rather 

lower  in  actual  feeding  value. 

Cucumbers   and   all  kinds   of 

melons    are     greedily    eaten 

by  poultry. 

Clover  and  Alfalfa 
As    poultry     generally    do 
not    care    for    green    grass 
after  it  becomes  a  little  hard 
and    tough,     hay     to    be    at 
tractive     to    them     must    be 
made  from  grass  cut  at  the 


stage  at  which  they  prefer  it,  and  cured  to  preserve  the 
green  color.  Clover  and  alfalfa  are  most  suitable  for  this 
purpose,  and  are  more  conveniently  handled  and  fed  when 
ground  into  meal  or  cut  very  finely.  While  there  is  not 
much  difference  in  the  feeding  value  of  the  two  when  both 
are  of  like  grade,  the  weather  generally  in  alfalfa-growing 
sections  is  more  favorable  for  curing  than  in  clover-grow- 
ing sections.  Hence  a  much  larger  proportion  of  the 
alfalfa  is  nice  in  color,  and  in  every  way  attractive,  and 
alfalfa  tends,  steadily  to  displace  clover  in  the  poultry 
ration  wherever  they  come  in  competition. 

Animal  By-Product  Feeds 

There  are  two  sources  of  supplies  of  this  kind — loca 
supplies  consisting  of  the  wastes  and  trimmings  from  small 
butcher  shops,  from  the  family  table,  and  perhaps  an  oc- 
casional old  horse;  and  the  general  commercial  supplies 
put  up  in  convenient  form  and  ready  for  use,  by  all  classes 
of  packing  plants  handling  meat  and 
fish  products.  Supplies  from  local 
sources  are  generally  limited  and  ir- 
regular. At  the  same  time  they  are 
often  the  most  desirable  to  use  as  far 
as  they  will  go,  if  they  can  be  ob- 
tained at  reasonable  prices  and  their 
preparation  for  use  does  not  involve 
too  much  time  and  labor.  Except  for 
small  flocks,  local  supplies  as  a  rule 
are  of  little  consequence.  The  multi- 
plication of  poultry  keepers  in  towns 
and  suburbs  tends  to  divide  avail- 
able local  supplies  until  the  amount 
that  any  one  poultry  keeper  can  get 
becomes  so  small  that  it  is  hardly 
worth  his  while  to  look  after  it.  He 
finds  it  much  more  convenient  to  buy, 

in  quantity  to  suit  his  needs,  meat  scrap,  meat  meal,  dried 
blood,  fish  scrap,  and  other  similar  preparations  which 

will  keep  indefinitely,  and  are  always  ready  for  instant  use. 

• 
Nearly  all  experienced  poultry  keepers  consider  green 

cut  bone,  which  usually  has  with  it  considerable  fresh 
meat,  the  best  of  animal  feeds  for  poultry,  and  the  one 
which  supplies  the  additional  mineral  matter  needed  in 
most  palatable  form.  But  few  poultry  keepers  that  have 
large  stocks  can  get  anywhere  near  as  much  of  this  as 
they  could  use,  and  unless  they  have  a  power  cutter  they 
are  apt  to  prefer  prepared  feeds  exclusively,  for  while 
cutting  bone  for  a  small  flock  is  good  exercise,  the  man 
who  cuts  on  a  large  scale  needs  to  be  properly  equipped 
for  it.  Meat  and  fish  by-products  as  sold  for  poultry 
vary  considerably  in  composition.  Dried  blood  and  blood 
meal  are  largely  albumin,  but  most  of  the  brands  of 
meat  meal  on  the  market  are  high  in  fat.  As  far  as 


YOUNG    DUCKS    REARED    WITHOUT    ANIMAL,    FEED 
Same  age,  and  originally  same  number  as  flock  on  opposite  page. 


PROPERTIES  AND  COMPOSITION  OF  POULTRY  FEEDS 


19 


feeding  quality  goes,  practically  all  are  valuable  additions 
to  the  ration,  and  the  choice — if  there  be  any — between 
brands  of  different  composition  is  a  matter  of  price  as 
compared  with  content.  The  .best  way  to  compare  values 
is  on  the  reports  of  their  composition  as  published  by  the 
experiment  stations  which  are  by  law  authorized  to 
analyze  feeds  and  to  publish  the  results  for  distribution 
to  consumers  in  their  states. 

It  is  a  noteworthy  fact  that  the  greatest  danger  in 
using  this  class  of  poultry  feeds  comes  from  the  fre- 
quency of  their  containing  much  more  protein  and  fat 
than  the  manufacturer  has  given  on  his  label  or  bag  as 
his  guarantee.  The  manufacturer  does  this  for  his  own 
protection  against  the  possibility  of  many  lots  of  goods 
running  below  the  guarantee  if  he  places  that  too  high, 
since  he  cannot  in  a  waste  product  of  this  kind  make 
uniform  quality  as  he  would  in  a  standard  product.  The 
consumer  not  being  informed  of  the  situation  assumes 
that  the  guarantee  gives  exact  composition  and  uses  it 
accordingly.  Manufacturers  t  h  e  m- 
selves  sometimes  advise  the  propor-  [~ 
tion  of  an  article  to  use,  basing  it  on 
their  guarantee.  This  is  a  mistake  in 
the  case  of  a  high  concentrate  of  va- 
riable quality,  for  it  often  leads  the 
user  to  put  into  a  mixture  more  than 
should  be  used,  considering  other  ele- 
ments in  his  ration.  Then  if  bad  ef- 
fects develop  the  feeder  supposes 
that  there  is  something  injurious  in 
the  feed,  when  the  whole  trouble  is 
that  he  is  regularly  using  a  little  too 
much  of  it. 

The  question  of  feeding  value  in 
feeds  of  this  class  cannot  be  determ- 
ined by  the  agreeableness  or  dis- 
agreeableness  of  the  odor.  Some 

have  a  rather  agreeable  odor  when  moistened — especi- 
ally when  mixed  with  hot  water.  Others  have  a  dis- 
agreeable odor  —  rather  suggestive  of  fertilizer.  It  is 
natural  to  conclude  that  the  better  smelling  article  is 
in  every  way  better,  and  poultrymen  generally  are  in- 
clined to  give  it  the  preference;  yet  it  happens  again  and 
again  that  when  they  cannot  get  the  article  they  prefer, 
and  are  compelled  to  use  one  that  on  odor  they  pronounce 
less  desirable,  they  find  it  in  every  way  as  satisfactory  as 
the  other.  Occasionally  a  lot  may  be  damaged  in  some 
way  so  that  it  is  unpalatable  and  unfit  to  feed,  but  in 
general  what  the  chickens  will  eat  readily  will  not  injure 
them,  unless  an  excessive  quantity  is  given,  and  the  proof 
of  quality  is  in  the  results.  Nearly  all  meat  scraps  and  fish 
scraps  contain  considerable  amounts  of  mineral  matter. 


Milk  and  Milk  Products 

Milk  in  any  form  is  good  poultry  feed.  If  it  appears 
to  have  bad  results  in  any  case  the  trouble  can  usually  be 
located  in  an  undesirable  combination  of  something  else 
with  the  milk,  or  in  extreme  susceptibility  of  certain  birds 
to  the  effects  of  such  changes  as  from  sweet  to  sour  milk. 
The  general  statements  that  have  been  put  out  as  to  the 
inadvisability  of  feeding  both  sweet  and  sour  milk,  as  to 
peculiar  virtue  for  sour  milk,  and  as  to  bad  effects  of 
sweet  milk,  are  all  based  on  limited  observation  and 
special  instances,  and  some  of  the  most  widely  quoted  of 
them  were  soon  corrected  by  those  issuing  them,  but  the 
error  always  seems  to  spread  faster  than  the  correction. 

A  poultry  keeper  may  find  that  milk,  or  milk  in  a 
particular  form,  does  not  agree  with  his  birds  or  with 
some  of  them.  The  logical  thing  to  do  is  to  investigate, 
in  order  to  find  the  reason  and  to  correct  it,  for  when  milk 
seems  to  disagree  with  poultry  there  is  something  else  to 
be  corrected.  It  may  be  that  the  amount  of  meat  in  the 


YOUNG  DUCKS  GROWING  FOR  MARKET  AT  ATLANTIC  FARM 

In  such  numbers  the  ducks  each  get  little  of  the  animal  feed  in  the  water,  and 

must  have  heavy  proportions  of  meat  in  their  rations. 


ration  is  excessive  in  connection  with  the  amount  of  milk 
used.  In  one  case  observed,  where  sweet  skim  milk  was 
said  to  scour  laying  hens,  the  trouble  was  that,  with  a 
dry  mash  containing  a  large  proportion  of  nice  alfalfa 
meal,  and  the  vessel  of  milk  standing  close  to  the  feed 
hopper,  the  hens  ate  mash  and  milk  so  freely  as  to  pro- 
duce the  peculiar  looseness  of  the  droppings  that  goes 
with  heavy  feeding  of  green  alfalfa.  If  milk  seems  to  have 
bad  effects  there  is  always  a  reason,  and  usually  a  simple, 
easily  remedied  one. 

Skim  milk  and  buttermilk  are  the  forms  in  which 
milk  is  commonly  available.  Regular  supplies  of  these  are 
generally  to  be  had  at  really  low  cost  only  on  farms 
where  butter  is  made,  or  in  the  vicinity  of  creameries.  At 
present  there  is  a  partly  solidified  form  of  buttermilk  on 

the  market  that  is  very  good 
for  poultry  feed.  This  "semi- 
solid  buttermilk"  as  it  i's 
often  called,  is  given  to  chicks 
at  all  stages  of  growth  and 
is  considered  especially  de- 
sirable for  them,  as  milk  is 
believed  to  have  an  excep- 
tionally favorable  effect  upon 
growth.  Many  poultry  feed- 
ers supply  semi-solid  butter- 
milk also  to  laying  fowls, 
while  it  is  regarded  as  al- 
most essential  in  rations  for 
special  fattening.  As  a  drink 
for  chicks  it  usually  is  di- 


YOUNG    DUCKS    REARED    ON    HIGH    PROTEIN    MEAT    SCRAP 
Same  age  as  those  on  opposite  page. 


20 


HOW  TO  FEED  POULTRY  FOR  ANY  PURPOSE  WITH  PROFIT 


•  , 


FARRER   BROS.'   MARK: 


FLTRY   FARM,    WEST   NORWELL,    MASS. — ONE    OF    THE 
PLANTS   OF   THIS    CLASS,    ESTABLISHED    ABOUT    1890 


FIRST     SUCCESSFUL     LARGE 


Heavy  production  of  poultry  on  a  small  area  has  at  times  made  it  necessary  to  limit  operations  with  poultry  and 
purify  the  soil  by  raising-  vegetable  crops — after  which  it  can  be  again  used  for  poultry.  The  nearest  thing-  to  a 
"panacea"  for  poultry  diseases  is  CLEAN  LAND. 


luted  with    water,  but    may  be    given  to    hens  just    as  it 
comes  from  the  barrel  in  which  it  is  shipped. 

At  various  times  in  the  past  milk  products  in  dry 
form,  convenient  and  desirable  for  poultry  feed,  have 
been  put  on  the  market.  Everything  of  this  kind  is  good 
for  poultry.  The  question  of  feeding  any  particular  article 
is  the  question  of  price.  A  number  of  milk  by-products 
have  been  withdrawn  from  sale  as  poultry  feeds  after 
their  reputation  had  been  well  established,  because  the 
manufacturers  had  devised  a  way  of  preparing  them  for 
human  food  and  could  dispose  of  them  for  that  purpose 
at  higher  prices  than  they  could  obtain  for  stock  feed. 

Mineral  Feeds 

The  most   important   of   the   mineral   feeds   is    oyster 
shell.    Hens   that  are  well   supplied  with   it  do   not  seem 
to    require    anything   else    to   provide    material    for     egg 
shells,    nor   will    they    (in   the    writer's     experience)    con- 
sume  any   appreciable   amount   of   indigestible   grit   when 
that    is    supplied    on    the    theory    that    it    is    necessary   to 
aid  the  gizzard  in  grinding  the  feed. 
Any    shell    or    lime    in    form    that    it 
can    be   fed    to  birds    seems    to  an- 
swer the   purpose   of  supplying  min- 
eral   elements    needed,    and    it   would 
appear  that  on  soils  containing  much 
finely     broken     stone,     poultry     are 
able    to    get    from    such    matter    all 
the    mineral    elements   they   need    for 
the  ordinary  purposes  of  growth  and 
maintenance.     Both    young    and    old 
stock  on  good  range  appear  quite  in- 
different  to   special   supplies   of  bone 
or  shell,  except  as  material  is  plainly 
needed    for   egg   shells.    Under   other 
circumstances,    especially   when   quite 
limited  for  range  and  on  ground  that 
has  been  long  used  for  poultry,   and 
perhaps  overstocked  with  it  much  of 
the     time,     the     use     of    considerable 
amounts  of  bone  meal  in  the  feed  of 
growing  poultry   has   shown   marked   beneficial   results. 

While  ground  oyster  shell  is  the  most  generally 
available  of  things  of  that  character,  very  small  sea  shells 
which  can  be  eaten  without  grinding  are  just  as  good, 
and  are  largely  used  by  poultry  keepers  living  near  the 
seashore.  Poultrymen  in  places  where  such  shells  are 


abundant   sometimes  do  a  considerable  trade   selling  this 
material  within  convenient  shipping  distance.    There  are 
also  in  some  inland  localities  beds  of  infusorial  earth  an 
deposits   of  chalky  or  giavelly  stone  which   disintegrate 
easily,  and  this  material  seems  to  supply  all  the  minera 
feed  requirements   of  poultry. 

In  general  practice  it  is  better  to  supply  materials 
of  this  kind  separately,  so  that  the  birds  can  take  as  mucl 
as  their  appetites  seem  to  require,  than  to  undertake  tc 
mix  them  with  the  feed  in  any  definite  proportions. 
can  be  mixed  with  ground  grains  only  when  in  the  forr 
of  meal,  as  bone  meal,  or  finely  ground  oyster  shell.  Fee 
in  this  way  they  frequently  cause  irritation  of  the  in- 
testines. In  some  experiments  in  the  use  of  ash  and  grit 
for  chicks,  sand  has  appeared  to  be  as  effective  as  bone 
or  shell,  and  some  have  inferred  from  this  that  it  was 
the  gritty  character  of  materials  of  this  kind  rather  that 
their  digestible  elements  that  made  them  valuable  tc 
poultry.  That  conclusion  however  ought  not  to  be  ac- 


A  LONG 
This  is  the  building 


BROODER   HOUSE    ON    FARRER    BROS.'    FARM 
at  the  extreme  right  (and  only  partly  seen)   in  picture  above. 

cepted  without  inquiry  into  the  character  of  the  "sand" 
used,  and  the  possibility  of  its  dissolving  into  small  par- 
ticles, and — in  fact — being  digestible.  Coarse  sand  mixed 
with  poultry  manure  that  afterwards  stands  for  a  long 
time  sometimes  entirely  disappears,  not  a  trace  of  the 
grains  of  sand  remaining.  The  processes  of  digestion 


PROPERTIES  AND  COMPOSITION  OF  POULTRY  FEEDS 


21 


might  have  the  same  effect,  and  perhaps  reduce  the  sand 
much  more   speedily. 

Division  of  opinion  as  to  the  function  and  need  of 
grit  need  not  confuse  anyone  as  to  the  course  that  he 
should  follow  in  feeding.  All  admit  that  some  digestible 


SMALL  COLONY   HOUSE  USED   FOR   CHICKENS   AFTER   LEAV- 
ING THE   BROODERS,   ON  FARRER   BROS.'    FARM 
In  these  6x8  ft.  houses  fifty  winter  chicks  are  carrier  to  mar- 
ketable size  for  large  roasters.     The  window  is  never  closed,  and 
the  door  open  nearly  all  the  time,  day  and  night. 


mineral  matter  is  needed.  If  poultry  are  constantly  sup- 
plied with  oyster  shell  and  granulated  bone  they  will  cer- 
tainly get  all  of  it  that  they  need,  and  a  small  supply  of 
a  grit  that  is  certainly  indigestible  will  then  be  found  to 
last  indefinitely.  If  the  grit  provided  is  eaten  freely  by 
birds  that  have  plenty  of  shell  and  bone,  it  may  be  con- 
cluded that  it  is  valuable  as  a  source  of  supply  of  similar 
mineral  elements. 

Commercial  Mixed  Feeds — Their  Place  in  Feeding 
Economy 

The  foregoing  discussion  of  feeds  has  been  confined 
quite  closely  to  feeds  in  their  natural  forms  or  as  simple 
by-products.  There  is  a  large  class  of  mixed  feeds  formed 
by  combinations  of  both  whole  feeds  and  by-products  that 
is  of  great  interest  and  calls  for  special  attention.  It  is  of 
considerable  importance  to  the  poultry  feeder  to  have  a 
correct  understanding  of  the  place  of  these  feeds  in  good 
feeding  practice,  and  of  the  extent  to  which  he  can  use 
them  to  advantage,  and  also  of  the  nature  of  the  service 
performed  by  the  manufacturers  of  such  feeds,  and  of  the 
means  for  protecting  consumers  against  misrepresentation 
aii'i  adulteration  of  a  class  of  feeds  which  offers  special 
teirpiations  to  manufacturers  or  dealers  inclined  to  be 
dishonest  in  preparing  or  handling  feeds. 

Commercial  mixtures  of  ground  feeds  are  made  gen- 
erally and  primarily  for  the  sake  of  adding  to  by-products 
of  grains  used  for  human  food  the  elements  that  will  sub- 
stitute in  a  stock  feed  for  those  that  were  taken  out. 
Thus  one  of  the  oldest  mixtures,  called  provender,  com- 
bined coarse  bran  with  ground  corn  and  oats.  As  by- 
products became  more  numerous  and  abundant,  it  was  to 
the  mutual  interest  of  the  manufacturers  and  of  a  large 
class  of  those  who  used  them,  to  make  mixtures  of  feeds 
for  special  purposes  at  the  mills.  With  the  increasing  use 


of  mixtures  of  ground  feeds  there  came  a  demand  also  for 
mixtures  of  grains — whole  and  cracked.  This  demand  came 
in  the  first  place  from  small  poultry  keepers  who  did  not 
want  to  buy  numerous  different  articles  in  small  lots,  at 
the  highest  retail  prices,  and  also — to  some  extent — from 
poultry  keepers  buying  on  a  larger  scale,  who 
were  not  disposed  to  take  the  trouble  of 
studying  out  the  most  desirable  combinations 
for  themselves,  or  who,  when  they  did  so  and 
tried  to  make  their  own  mixtures,  found 'more 
or  less  difficulty  in  obtaining  supplies  of  cer- 
tain articles  wanted. 

It  was  the  demand  of  these  classes  of  poul- 
try keepers  that  led  to  the  extensive  manufac- 
ture, advertising,  and  sale  of  commercial 
brands  of  poultry  feed.  The  high  grade  and 
generally  uniform  quality  of  the  popular  stand- 
ard brands  of  both  mash  and  scratch  feeds 
for  poultry  has  led  to  their  extensive  use 
among  poultry  keepers  who  do  not  use  them 
exclusively,  because  their  cost  as  a  rule  is 
higher  than  that  of  average  feeds  the  poultry- 
man  mixes  for  himself,  but  who  find  the  com- 
mercial mixtures  especially  desirable  for 
young  poultry,  and  the  most  economical  means 
of  supplying  more  variety  in  grains  than  the 
stocks  of  local  grain  dealers  afford.  In  fact  it 
is  the  absorption  of  nearly  all  desirable  sup- 
plies of  miscellaneous  grains  by  the  plants 
that  manufacture  commercial  poultry  feeds, 
that  keeps  these  out  of  the  general  market. 
While  the  special  commercial  mixture  of  scratch  feed 
has  a  variety  of  grains  not  easily  obtained  in  any  other 
form,  and  is  therefore  of  peculiar  value  to  poultry  keepers 
whose  stock  is  restricted  for  range,  it  is  also  highly  valu- 
able because  of  the  uniformly  high  quality  of  the  corn 
which  is  the  basis  and  the  greater  part  of  most  such  mix- 
tures. One  of  the  greatest  troubles  in  poultry  feeding 
in  America  is  to  get  good  cracked  corn,  bright,  clean,  and 
free  from  mold  in  warm,  damp  weather.  The  difficulty  has 
been  greater  in  recent  years  because  of  the  extent  to  which 
farmers  all  over  the  corn  belt,  in  their  eagerness  to  get 
large  yields,  have  planted  slow  maturing  corn,  the  growth 


TYPE     OF    POULTRY     HOUSE    USED     FOR     GROWING 
SOFT   ROASTERS   ON   A   SMALL   SCALE 

These  houses  are  detached,  and  each  has  its  own 
small  yard  withhi  a  large  yard.  This  admits  of  closer 
control  of  the  chickens  especially  while  small.  Many 
persons  with  a  few  small  houses  of  this  type,  or  a  little 
larger,  hatch  or  buy  several  hundred  chickens  late  in  the 
season,  to  be  sold  when  prices  are  highest  in  the  spring. 
From  such  small  plants  nearly  all  successful  large  ones 
have  grown. 


22 


HOW  TO  FEED  POULTRY  FOR  ANY  PURPOSE  WITH  PROFIT 


of  which  often  is  checked  by  early  frosts,  making  enor- 
mous quantities  of  soft  corn  which  is  not  desirable  for 
meal  or  to  crack,  and  which  deteriorates  quickly  after 
milling.  The  large  manufacturer  of  poultry  feeds  partly 
avoids  the  dangers  of  using  poor  corn  by  buying  in  corn- 
growing  sections  the  best  corn  obtainable,  and  further 
overcomes  them  by  artificially  drying  the  corn  before 
giinding  or  cracking  it. 

After  a  season  like  that  of  1917  when  it  was  estimated 
that  fully  sixty  per  cent  of  the  corn  grown  in  the  United 


EMBDEN    GEESE    GRAZING 

There    is    an    old    saying- — "a    goose    eats    everything 
before  it  and  spoils  everything  behind  it."     This  is  true 
.     only  when  they  are  given  poor  pasture. 

States  was  soft,  even  the  large  feed  manufacturers  must 
use  some  soft  corn,  but  as  what  they  use  is  dried  it  is  far 
superior  to  the  greater  part  of  the  corn  on  the  market,  and 
will  keep  in  good  condition  for  more  months  than  the 
ordinary  run  of  goods  will  keep  weeks.  The  poultry 
keeper  who  finds  his  local  supply  of  cracked  corn  un- 
reliable or  undesirable  buys  at  least  enough  of  a  popular 
standard  commercial  mixture  to  provide  against  the  con- 
tingency of  being  unable  to  get  good  corn  locally  in  hot 
weather.  Hence,  while  peihaps  comparatively  few  large 
poultry  keepers  use  commercial  mixtures  exclusively, 
practically  all  buy  them  in  large  quantities. 

The  popularity  of  widely  known  commercial  mixtures, 
both  mashes  and  scratch  feeds,  and  the  frequency  with 
which  the  demand  for  them  outruns  the  supply,  leads  mil- 
lers and  dealers  in  all  localities  to  imitate  them,  or  to 
offer  substitutes  of  their  own  compounding.  While  in 
some  instances  these  may  be  as  good  as  the  originals,  in 
general  they  are  not,  for  the  corn  products  in  them  are 
1'kely  to  be  the  same  inferior  articles  which  the  poultry 
keeper  wishes  to  avoid.  The  best  way 'for  a  poultry  keeper 
to  keep  informed  as  to  the  values  of  all  supplies  on  the 
market  is  through  the  report  of  his  experiment  station 
upon  the  different  brands  of  commercial  feeds  sold  in 
his  state.  A  list  of  the  experiment  stations  will  be  found 
on  page  111.  These  reports  protect  both  the  consumer 
and  the  honest  manufacturer. 

From  what  has  been  said  the  reader  will  see  that  the 
question  of  buying  commercial  mixtures,  or  of  buying  the 
ingredients  separately  and  making  his  own  mixtures,  de- 
pends upon  the  conditions  under  which  his  flock  is  kept, 
upon  the  quality  and  regularity  of  local  supplies,  and 
upon  his  own  inclination  or  ability  to  judge  of  the  values 
of  feeding  stuffs  as  found  on  the  market,  and  to  com- 
pound rations.  Stock  on  good  range,  with  abundance  of 
green  feed  and  natural  animal  feed  may  eat  soft  corn 
or  somewhat  heated  corn  without  being  any  the  worse 
for  it,  and  will  not  suffer  for  lack  of  more  variety  in 
giains,  while  stock  in  bare  yards  will  quickly  show  the 
effects  of  poor  corn,  and  is  more  cheaply  fed  on  a  good 
commercial  mixture  than  on  a  variable  supply  as  selected 
by  a  keeper  who  pays  little  attention  to  the  quality  of  the 
feeds  delivered  to  him. 


Condimental  Poultry   Feeds 

Condimenta!  poultry  feeds  are  preparations  in  which 
articles    having    stimulative    and    tonic    properties,    and 
others   of   some   value   in   the   treatment   of   common   ail- 
ments, are  mixed  with  a  base  or  filler  of  some  common 
feed  suitable  for  the  purpose,  the  preparation  to  be  used 
in  small  quantities  in  the  mash.    The  regular  use  of  such 
preparations   parallels   the   use  of  spices,   seasonings,  and 
mild    stimulants    and     correctives    in    human    diet.     That 
some  use  of  such  things  is  necessary  is  a  matter  of  com- 
mon knowledge.    The    real    questions    at  issue    between 
those  who  advocate  and  those  who  discourage  the  use  o 
proprietary  articles  of  this  class  are,  whether  this  is  th 
most  economical  way  to  give  stimulants,  tonics,  and  cor 
rectives  regularly,  and  whether  it  is  better  to  use  them  a 
general  remedies,  on  the  poultryman's  own  judgment,  o 
to  treat  cases  of  disease  each  in  accordance  with  its  pecu- 
liar needs,  and  upon  competent  medical  advice. 

Especially  stimulating  preparations  known  as  eg; 
foods  have  to  the  present  time  been  the  most  generally 
effective  substitutes. for  the  high  seasoning  and  spicing  in 
human  diet,  which  gives  to  ordinary  table  waste  much  of 
its  special  palatableness  and  value  as  poultry  feed;  one 
reason  for  this  is  found  in  the  simple  fact  that  a  great 
many  poultry  keepers  who  are  careless  about  supplying 
these  things  as  seasoning  to  make  a  ration  more  palatable 
to  the  birds,  will  be  very  faithful  in  giving  the  same  in- 
gredients, with  others  of  a  stimulating  nature,  when  the 
diiect  purpose  is  especially  to  stimulate  egg  production. 
Again  in  stock  of  low  vitality,  and  quite  generally  in 
stock  of  ordinary  vigor  in  long  seasons  of  raw,  chilly 
weather,  and  when  birds  seem  inclined  to  molt  slowly, 
the  use  of  such  preparations  is  commonly  attended  with 
marked  beneficial  results,  and  on  the  whole  the  use  of 
those  having  medical  value  is  probably  much  safer  for  the 
aveiage  poultry  keeper  than  to  attempt  to  treat  his  stock 
for  a  particular  disease  with  a  particularly  appropriate 
remedy  for  it. 

To  get  medical  advice  for  poultry  that  seems  some- 
what out  of  condition  is  not  often  practical.  Except 
where  the  stock  is  valuable  and  something  seems  to  be 
seriously  wrong,  the  expense  of  securing  advice  either 
from  a  doctor  or  an  expert  poultryman  competent  to 
treat  the  situation  is  prohibitive.  So  while  a  poultryman 
who  has  some  skill  in  the  diagnosis  of  poultry  ailments, 
and  some  knowledge  of  the  particular  remedies  for  each, 
may  use  his  special  knowledge  rather  than  a  general 
remedy,  the  average  poultry  keeper  is  more  successful,  as 
a  rule,  in  the  use  of  feeds  with  condimental  and  some 


A  FAMILY  OF  RHODE   ISLAND   "MONGREL   GEESE" — 
WILD   GANDER,   AFRICAN   GOOSE1,   AND   FOUR 

CROSS-BRED    GOSLINGS 

These  are  considered  the  finest  of  table  geese.  They 
are  grown  mostly  on  grass  in  good  pastures,  grain  be- 
ing fed  in  very  limited  amounts,  except  by  those  who- 
buy  and  finish  them  for  market. 


PROPERTIES  AND  COMPOSITION  OF  POULTRY  FEEDS 


23 


medicinal  properties  which  tone  up  the  birds,  help  di- 
gestion, regulate  the  bowels,  and  help  nature  to  resist  and 
throw  off  specific  troubles  that  may  be  developing. 

The  practical  thing  for  a  poultry  keeper  who  thinks 
perhaps  his  poultry  would  be  the  better,  regularly  or  oc- 
casionally, for  something  of  this  kind  is  to  try  it  out. 
He  can  demonstrate  for  himself  whether  there  is  an  ad- 
vantage to  him  in  using  it,  and  if  he  finds  that  there  is, 
he  can  decide  for  himself  whether  it  is  better  for  him  to 
continue  its  use,  or  to  make  such  changes  in  feeding  and 
conditions  that  there  will  be  no  occasion  to  use  them  to 
the  same  extent. 

Kitchen  and  Table  Waste  as  Poultry  Feed 

Under  this  heading  should  be  included  the  kinds  of 
feeds  that  come  from  the  table,  whatever  their  source. 
Thus  we  have  all  sorts  of  garbage  from  hotels  and 
restaurants,  and  waste  bread,  broken  crackers  and  the 
like  from  bakeries.  None  of  these  things  come  on  the 
general  market.  The  refuse  from  cracker  factories  is  the 
only  article  of  the  sort  that  can  be  bagged  and  handled 
as  staple  feeds  are,  and  this  is  nearly  all  bought  up  in 
advance  by  the  large  duck  farms.  What  they  may  leave 
is  taken  by  poultrymen  near  the  factories.  Stale  bread 
is  usually  sold  to  near  by  poultrymen  or,  in  metropolitan 
districts,  it  may  be  collected  by  men  who  peddle  it  out 
in  lots  of  a  few  bags  to  suburban  poultry  keepers.  The 


higher  class  hotels  and  restaurants  now  usually  either 
have  their  own  farms  where  their  waste  is  fed  to  poul- 
try or  hogs,  or  their  waste  is  taken  by  someone  who 
uses  it  for  feeding  hogs,  as  also  is  most  of  the  waste 
from  cheaper  hotels  and  restaurants.  The  obstacle  to 
getting  for  poultry  what  is  desirable  feed  for  them  in  this 
waste  is  that  it  requires  separating  what  the  poultry  will 
not  eat,  and  disposing  of  it  for  swine.  As  feeders  of 
swine  will  take  everything,  keepers  of  hotels  and  restaur- 
ants who  have  not  farms  of  their  own  will  not  go  to  the 
trouble  of  keeping  waste  in  such  manner  that  ptmltry 
keepers  can  use  it.  So  with  the  exception  of  occasional 
supplies  of  stale  bread,  the  average  poultry  keeper's  use 
of  this  class  of  feeds  in  closely  limited  to  what  comes 
from. his  own  household. 

Eggs 

Of  by-products  of  the  poultry  yard  only  infertile  eggs 
and  those  in  which  the  dead  germ  has  not  yet  decomposed 
are  available  for  feeding,  and  their  use  is  generally  limited 
to  feeding  the  chicks  the  first  few  days.  Infertile  eggs 
that  can  be  tested  out  at  the  third  or  fourth  day,  as  can 
readily  be  done  with  white-shelled  eggs,  are  as  good  for 
culinary  purposes  a-s  ordinary  stale  eggs,  and  even  eggs 
tested  out  after  seven  days  of  incubation  are  marketable 
for  some  purposes,  so  that  the  feeding  of  infertile  eggs 
is  less  common  than  some  years  ago. 


Analyses  and  Nutritive  Values  of  Articles  That  Are  or  May  Be  Fed  to  Poultry 


, 

F 


oi 


______  ~3 

.23^  cj  CD            3  oj  3  o3 

...  CCttlPn  fefc  £K  fe> 

Corn  and  corn  products 

Field  corn  10.9  1.9  1.5  10.4  70.3  5.0  1:7.9  106 

Sweet  corn  8.8  2.8  1.9  11.6  66.8  8.1  1:7.5  111 

Pop  corn  10.7  1.8  1.5  11.2  69.2  5.2  1:7.3  107 

Small  and  immature  field 

corn 35.7  1.0  0.9  7.3  50.7  3.5  1:8.1  68 

Cracked  corn  12.3  1.3  8.6  73.9  b  3.9  1:9.5  103 

Corn  bran  9.8  6.3  2.6  10.7  63.2  7.4  1:7.3  105 

Corn   meal— unbolted   12.0  2.2  1.3  8.7  74.1  4.7  1:9.5  104 

Corn  meal— bolted  12.0  1.2  1.0  8.9  72.0  4.9  1:9.5  106. 

Corn  meal— granulated  12.5  1.0  1.0  9.2  74.4  1.9  1:8.6  102 

Corn  and  cob  meal  15.1  6.6  1.5  8.5  64.8  3.5  1:8.6  94 

Corn  germ  meal 10.7  4.1  4.0  9.8  64.0  7.4  1:8.4  105 

Hominy  meal  11.1  3.8  2.5  9.3  64.5  8.3  1:8.7  108 

Gluten  meal  _ 9.6  1.6  0.7  29.4  52.4  6.3  1:2.3  111 

Gluten  feed  8.1  6.4  1.3  23.2  54.7  6.3  1:2.9  107 

Wheat  and  wheat  products 

Wheat  10.5  1.8  1.8  11.9  71.9  2.1  1:6.3  102 

Wheat  screenings  11.6  4.9  2.9  12.5  65.1  3.0  1:5.8  97 

Wheat  bran  11.9  9.0  5.8  15.4  53.9  4.0  1:4.1  90 

Wheat  middlings  12.1  4.6  3.3  15.6  60.4  4.0  1:4.7  98 

Red  dog  flour „....  9.5  2.1  3.0  16.9  63.9  4.6  1:4.4  106 

Low  grade  flour  10.6  1.1  1.4  13.3  71.5  2.1  1:5.7  104 

Mixed  feed  (bran  and 

middlings)   10.6 

Oats  and  oat  products 

Oats ..11.0  9.5  3.0  11.8  59.7  5.0  1:6.1  96 

Oatmeal  ..  ™ 7.9  0.9  2.0  14.7  67.4  7.1  1:5.8  113 

Oat  bran  7.7  19.3  3.7  7.1  57.9  2.3  1:8.9  81 

Oat  feed  8.2  12.5  4.2  12.6  56.3  6.2  1:5.7  96 

Oat  middlings  9.2  3.8  3.2  20.0  56.2  7.6  1:3.7  108 

Rolled  oats  8.4  1.9  15.0  66.6  7.5  1:5.7  114 

Barley  and  barley  products 

Barley 10.9  2.7  2.4  12.4  69.8  1.8  1:6  100 

Barley  screenings  12.4  7.6  3.6  12.2  61.6  2.6  1:5.8  92 

Barley  meal  11.9  6.5  2.6  10.5  66.3  2.2  1:6.8  93 

Malt  sprouts— dry 10.2  10.7  5.7  23.2  48.5  1.7  1:2.3  87 

Brewers  grains  8.2  11.0  3.6  19.9  51.7  5.6  1:3.3  97 

Brewers  grains— wet  75.7  3.8  1.0  5.4  12.5  1.6  1:3  24 


9.7      3.6      12.0      59.9        4.2      1:5.8       94 


Explanation  of  the  Feed  Table  and  of 
the  Method  of  Using  It 

The  first  column  in  the  table  gives 
the  amount  of  water  In  each  article. 
All  feeds  have  some  water.  The  com- 
mon grains  when  dry  and  whole  have 
about  ten  per  cent  of  their  weight  in 
moisture.  When  ground  or  cracked, 
the  percentage  of  water  is  slightly  in- 
creased. Green  feeds  generally  have 
nearly  90  per  cent  of  their  weight 
water,  but  there  is  considerable  varia- 
bility in  the  table,  and  in  many  cases 
the  difference  in  water  appears  to  be 
due  to  difference  in  condition  at  the 
time  of  analysis,  one  of  the  articles 
being  more  dried  or  more  mature  in 
growth  than  another,  rather  than  to 
actual  differences  in  composition — as 
far  as  moisture  is  concerned.  The 
amount  of  water  in  a  feed  does  not 
affect  its  nutritive  value,  but  may  af- 
fect its  cost  value. 

The  second  column  gives  the  per- 
centage of  fiber.  A  single  glance  at 
this  column  is  all  that  is  necessary -to 
show  whether  a  feed  has  an  objection- 
able proportion  of  indigestible  fiber. 
An  article  that  has  more  than  five  or 
six  per  cent  of  fiber  is  not  generally 
eaten  with  much  relish  by  poultry. 
Fiber  is  the  one  element  in  feeds  that 
we  want  as  low  as  we  can  get  it. 

The  third  column  gives  the  ash  or 
mineral  matter  in  the  article.  This  is 
higher  in  the  by-products,  as  a  rule, 
than  in  the  grains  and  their  straight 
milled  products,  but  it  really  is  not  of 
much  importance,  because  the  mineral 
in  feeds  is  generally  insufficient  and 
the  deficiency  can  be  supplied  cheaper 
In  shell  and  bone  than  in  grain  stuffs. 

The  fourth  column  gives  the  protein 
— the  flesh  formers.  The  grains  run 
about  10  to  12  per  cent  protein,  but 
the  seeds  run  much  higher,  and  the 
solid  animal  products  generally  higher 
still.  In  considering  the  feeding  values 
of  articles  much  higher  in  protein  than 
the  common  grains,  the  principal  point 
is  their  availability  and  the  cost  of 
using  them  to  make  up  the  possible 
deficiencies  of  protein  in  the  grains  and 
by-products  which  constitute  the  bulk 
of  the  ration.  Sometimes  one  is  more 
economical,  sometimes  another. 

The  fifth  column  gives  the  carbo- 
hydrates, consisting  of  starches  and 
sugars  and  like  elements.  In  the  com- 
mon grains,  when  dry,  these  are  about 
60  to  70  per  cent,  and  knowing  that 
somewhere  near  this  amount  is  re- 
quired for  average  normal  circumstan- 
ces, we  can  see  at  a  glance  whether 
an  article  approximates  normal  re- 
quirements, and  by  looking  at  the  next 


24 


HOW  TO  FEED  POULTRY  FOR  ANY  PURPOSE  WITH  PROFIT 


column  can  tell  whether  an  article 'be- 
low   normal    in    these    elements    makes 
t    up    in    the    more    concentrated    car- 
bonaceous elements. 

The  sixth  column  shows  the  per  cent 
ol  fat.  In  the  common  grains  this  is 
from  2  to  5  per  cent.  Theoretically  a 
large  per  cent  of  fat  will  compensate 
for  a  deficiency  in  starch,  etc.,  but  in 
practice  it  is  found  that  the  large  use 
o*  fats  makes  a  feed  either  unpalata- 
ble to  the  birds  or  injurious  to  their 
digestive  organs,  hence  the  article 
with  high  per  cent  of  fat  is  to  be  con- 
sidered chiefly  in  view  of  the  possi- 
bility of  making  this  supply  deficiency 
of  fat  in  more  bulky  materials. 

The  seventh  column  gives  the  nutri- 
tive ratio;  that  is,  the  ratio  of  the 
flesh  formers  to  the  heat  and  energy 
producers.  The  percentage  of  the 
nutritive  elements  in  a  feed  being 
known,  the  method  of  computing  the 
nutritive  ratio  is  as  follows:  The  fat 
is  reduced  to  terms  of  carbohydrates 
by  multiplying  by  2.25,  this  being  done 
because  fat  has  2.25  times  the  heat  and 
energy  producing  capacity  of  the  car- 
bohydrates. This  result  added  to  the 
carbohydrates  gives  us  the  total  of  the 
heat-producing  elements.  The  remain- 
der of  the  process  is  simply  a  matter 
of  statement,  and  of  reducing  the  state- 
ment to  its  lowest  numerical  terms. 

To  illustrate  with  corn:  Multiplying 
the  5  per  cent  of  fat  by  2.25  we  find 
that  it  is  equivalent  to  11.3  per  cent  of 
carbohydrates.  Adding  this  to  70.3  (the 
value  of  the  carbohydrates),  we  have 
81.6  as  the  total  percentage  of  heat 
producers.  The  percentage  of  protein 
is  10.4.  Expressing  the  two  quantities 
in  the  form  of  a  ratio  we  have  10.4:81.6, 
and  reducing  this  to  its  simplest  terms 
we  have  1:7.9  as  the  nutritive  ratio  of 
corn.  The  ratio  is  independent  of  the 
quantities  of  the  feed,  it  is  simply  an 
expression  of  the  relative  proportions 
of  the  elements  in  the  feed. 

The  last  column  gives  the  fuel  value, 
a  term  synonymous  with  potential 
energy  and  preferred  for  use  in  tables 
because  it  is  shorter.  This  value  is  an 
actual  and  not  a  relative  one,  and  must 
be  taken  for  specific  quantities  of  arti- 
cles. In  tables  of  poultry  feeds  it  is 
usual  to  give  the  number  of  heat  units 
in  one  ounce.  One  advantage  of  this  is 
that  the  common  grains  happen  to 
have  an  energy  of  about  100  calories 
per  ounce,  and  taking  this  as  the  aver- 
age normal  requirement  we  have  100 
as  a  convenient  standard  for  ordinary 
mental  comparisons  and  calculations 
such  as  we  make  generally  in  practical 
feeding. 

The  fuel  value  of  an  article  is  as- 
certained originally  by  burning  it  and 
measuring  the  resultant  heat.  The 
fuel  values  of  its  different  elements 
are  ascertained  by  burning  them  sep- 
arately after  they  have  been  chemical- 
ly separated.  In  this  experimental 
way  it  was  found  that  an  ounce  of  pro- 
tein and  an  ounce  of  carbohydrates 
have  the  same  fuel  value — 116  calories, 
•while  an  ounce  of  fat  has  a  fuel  value 
of  264  calories.  (It  will  be  noted  that 
this  is  a  little  more  than  indicated  by 
the  factor  2.25  which  we  use  in  reduc- 
ing fat  to  terms  of  carbohydrates  in 
determining  nutritive  ratios.  The  264 
is  accurate;  the  other  disregards  a 
small  fraction).  The  calculation  of  fuel 
value  in  an  ounce  of  a  feed  therefore  is 
simply  a  matter  of  finding  the  value  of 
the  combined  protein  and  carbo- 
hydrates, by  multiplying  the  percent- 
age of  the  two  by  116,  then  finding 
the  value  of  the  fat  by  multiplying  the 
percentage  of  fat  by  264;  and  adding 
these  results. 

Taking  corn  as  an  example:  An 
ounce  of  corn  is  10.4  per  cent  protein 
and  70.3  per  cent  carbohydrates;  that 
is,  80.7  per  cent  of 'it  has  a  fuel  value 
of  116  calories  per  ounce.  If  an  ounce 
has  a  fuel  value  of  116  calories,  80.7 
per  cent  of  an  ounce  has  a  value  of 
(116  x  .807)  calories,  or  disregarding 
the  third  decimal  (116  x  .80)  calories, 
which  gives  us  92.8  calories  as  the 
heat  value  of  these  elements.  Corn 
being  5  per  cent  fat,  and  fat  having 
a  fuel  heat  value  of  264  calories  per 
ounce,  the  heat  value  of  the  fat  in  an 
ounce  of  corn  is  found  by  multiply- 
ing 264  x  .05,  which  gives  us  13.2 
calories  in  the  fat  in  an  ounce  of  corn. 
Combining  our  two  results  we  have 
92.8  plus  13.2  equals  106. 


Analyses  and  Nutritive  Values  of  Articles  That  Are  or  May  Be  Fed  to  Poultry 

(Continued) 


jaJC 
cfi  w 


Rye  and  rye  products 

1-1 

ftt- 

<Sfr 

fc& 

M^e. 

Rye  

....11.6 

1.7 

1.9 

10.6 

725 

Rye  bran  
Rye  middlings 

11.6 
9.7 

3.5 
5.3 

3.6 
4.7 

14.7 
16.3 

63.8 
60.5 

Buckwheat  and  buckwheat 

products 

Buckwheat 
Buckwheat  bran  .... 
Buckwheat  middlings 

12.6 
14.0 
....13.2 

8.7 
14.7 

4.1 

2.0 
3.4 
4.8 

10.0 
17.1 
28.9 

64.5 
46.4 
41.0 

Rice  and  rice  products 

Rice  ..  .. 

....12.4 

0.2 

0.4 

7.4 

79.2 

Rice  flour  

....10.0 

6.3 

6.7 

11.7 

58.0 

Rice  bran  

....  9.7 

9.5 

HXO 

12.1 

49.9 

Rice   hulls   

*..  8.2 

35.7 

13.2 

3.6 

38.6 

Miscellaneous  Grains  and 

Seeds 

and  Their  Products 

Kafir  corn  

....  9.3 

1.4 

1.5 

9.9 

74.9 

Millet   

....13.5 

9.5 

3.0 

12.7 

580 

Sunflower   seed   . 

....  8.0 

28.5 

3.0 

13.0 

23.9 

Broom  corn  seed.. 

....14.1 

7.1 

2.0 

9.6 

64.7 

Broom  corn  seed  meal 

....13.5 

6.9 

2.1 

9.7 

642 

Sorghum   seed  

....12.8 

2.6 

2.1 

9.1 

70.0 

Sorghum  seed  meal 

....13.2 

1.8 

1.6 

83 

71  3 

Cottonseed  

....  9.9 

22.6 

4.7 

19.4 

23.9 

Cottonseed  meal  

....  8.2 

5.6 

7.2 

42.3 

23.6 

Flaxseed  

....11.8 

7.9 

3.4 

21.7 

19.6 

Ground  linseed   .... 

....  8.1 

7.3 

4.7 

21.6 

27.9 

Oil  meal  —  old  process  

...  9.2 

8.9 

5.7 

32.9 

354 

Oil  meal  —  new  process  

...10.1 

9.5 

5.8 

33.2 

38.4 

Hempseed   

...  8.0 

14.0 

2.0 

10.0 

45.0 

Rapeseed    

....13.8 

10.0 

3.9 

19.4 

10.4 

Peas  

...13.4 

6.4 

2.4 

22.4 

52.6 

Cowpeas    

...14.8 

4.1 

3.2 

28.8 

5,5  7 

Pea  meal  

...10.3 

14.4 

2.6 

20.2 

51.1 

Pea  bran  

...11.7 

20.1 

3.5 

16.8 

46.2 

Pea  feed  meal  

...13.5 

7.0 

3.1 

23.4 

51.0 

Field  beans  

...15.0 

3.2 

3.1 

20.4 

56.7 

Navy  beans  

...12.4 

7.2 

3.7 

22.2 

53.1 

Soy  Beans  

...10.8 

4.8 

4.7 

34.0 

28.8 

Soy   bean   meal  

...10.4 

2.6 

5.1 

36.0 

27.0 

Peanut  meal  

...10.7 

5.1 

4.9 

47.6 

23.7 

Peanut  bran  

...10.5 

19.5 

5.4 

21.8 

24.7 

Acorns  —  fresh   

...34.7 

4.2 

1.6 

4.4 

50.4 

Grass  and  Forage  —  green 

Grass  clippings  

...76.4 

4.1 

2.4 

2.3 

13.8 

White  clover   

...81.5 

4.3 

2.1 

4.4 

6.9 

Red  clover  

...70.8 

8.1 

2.1 

4.4 

13.5 

Alfalfa   

...80.0 

4.7 

1.7 

4.9 

7.9 

Barley    

-79.0 

7.9 

1.8 

2.7 

8.0 

Rye  

...76.6 

7.5 

1.7 

3.0 

10.3 

Corn  

...82.8 

5.0 

1.5 

1.4 

8.9 

Millet  

..87.0 

4.1 

1.2 

1.3 

6.2 

Oat   shoots   

..83.9 

3.8 

1.5 

2.3 

8.0 

Rape  

..85.9 

3.5 

1.3 

2.8 

5.7 

Buckwheat   

..83.7 

4.3 

1.1 

2.5 

7.8 

Mustard    

..85.1 

2.9 

1.4 

2.9 

7.3 

Dandelion   tops   

..85.5 

0.5 

2.5 

7.3 

Beet  tops  

..90.0 

0.1 

1.3 

2.3 

Onion  tops  

..91.0 

0.1 

0.8 

3.0 

Lettuce   

..95.9 

0.5 

0.8 

1.0 

1.6 

Spinach   

..92.4 

0.7 

1.9 

2.1 

2.4 

Cabbage   

..90.5 

1.5 

1.4 

2.4 

3.9 

Hay  —  dry 

White   clover   

..  9.7 

24.1 

8.3 

15.7 

39.3 

Red   clover   

..15.3 

24.8 

6.2 

12.3 

38.1 

Alfalfa   

..  8.4 

25.0 

7.4 

14.3 

42.7 

Timothy    

..13.2 

29.0 

4.4 

5.9 

45.0 

Weeds  (c) 

Purslane  

17.2 

26.1 

53.7 

Wild  buckwheat  

7.5 

14.5 

75.9 

Pigweed  

9.2 

26.5 

62.8 

Lambs-quarters  

18.3 

25.1 

54.6 

Cheese  weed-mallow  

10.0 

17.7 

68.9 

Catnip  

12.0 

22.3 

63.1 

Hedge  mustard  

7.9 

16.5 

74.2 

1.7 
2.8 
3.5 


0.4 
7.3 
8.8 
0.7 

3.0 

3.3 

23.6 

3.5 

3.6 

3.6 

3.8 

19.5 

13.1 

35.6 

30.4 

7.9 

3.0 

21.0 

42.5 

3.0 

1.4 

1.2 

1.7 

2.0 

1.6 

1.4 

16.9 

18.9 

8.0 

18.1 

4.7 

1.0 
0.8 
1.1 
0.7 
0.6 
0.9 
0.4 
0.2 
0.5 
0.8 
0.6 
0.4 
0.6 
0.3 
0.2 
0.2 
0.5 
0.4 

2.9 
3.3 
2.2 
2.5 

2.9 
2.1 
1.4 
2.0 
3.4 
2.7 
1.4 


1:7.2 
1:4.8 
1:4.2 


2.2       1 :7 
4.4       1 :3.8 
7.1       1:2.1 


1:10.9 
1:6.5 
1:5.9 

1:11.2 

1:8.3 

1:5.3 

1:6.3 

1:7.6 

1:7.3 

1:8.6 

1:9.2 

1:3.5 

1:1.3 

1:5 

1:4.8 

1:1.7 

1:1.4 

1:9.7 

1:6.3 

1:2.4 

1:2.8 

1:2.6 

1:3 

1:2.4 

1:3 

1:2.5 

1:2.1 

1:2.6 

1:1.4 

1:3 

1:4.4 

1:7 

1:1.6 

1:3.7 

1:1.9 

1:3.5 

1:4 

1:7 

1:5 

1:4 

1:2.6 

1:3.5 

1:2.9 

1:3.5 

1:2.3 

1:2.7 

1:2.1 

1:1.7 

1:2 

1:2.9 
1:3.7 
1:3.4 
1 :8.7 


"3  3 
3*3 


100 
98 
98 

83 

85 

101 

102 
80 
95 
48 

106 

82 

105 

95 

95 

102 

102 

101 

111 

141 

137 

99 

91 

119 

147 

85 

92 

85 

78 

93 

93 

90 

117 

123 

100 

119 

97 

15 
15 
23 
17 
14 
18 
13 

9 
14 
12 
14 
13 
13 

5 

8 

4 

6 


71 
67 
71 
66 


PROPERTIES  AND  COMPOSITION  OF  POULTRY  FEEDS 


25 


Analyses  and  Nutritive  Values  of  Articles  That  Are  or  May  Be  Fed  to  Poultry 

(Concluded) 


C  C               C  C  C 

J«  «  o>            a,  --4, 

*°  ««            w  2" 

ess-  .Q  s-         .C  i.  ;- 

t-^QJ  .—  4)            X  <D  —    ^ 

Weeds  (c) — Continued. 

Common  mustard  7.1  15.8 

Goosefoot  11.5  13.7 

Pigeon  grass   12.8  16.2 

Quack  grass  7.7  11.3 

Roots 

White  potatoes  78.9  0.6       1.0  2.1 

White   potatoes — frozen 61.5  0.8       1.1  1.6 

Sweet  potatoes   71.1  1.3       1.0  1.5 

Table    beets    88.5  0.9       1.0  1.5 

Sugar  beets  86.5  0.9       0.9  1.8 

Mangel-wurzels   90.0  0.9       1.1  1.4 

Turnips   90.5  1.2       0.8  1.1 

Carrots   88.6  1.3       1.0  1.1 

Parsnips  81.0  6.3       1.0  1.6 

Onions    87.6  0.7       0.6  1.4 

Dry  beet  pulp  8.1  19.8      2.7  10.2 

Fruits  (d) 

Apples— fresh  84.1  0.9       0.2  0.2 

Apple  pomace  80.2  4.5       0.7  0.9 

Apple  pomace— dry  10.0  20.5       4.0  3.2 

Pears  80.9  1.5       0.4  1.0 

Peaches  89.4  3.6      0.4  0.7 

Plums   78.4  0.5  1.0 

Cherries  80.9  0.2       0.6  1.0 

Grapes  77.4  4.3      0.5  1.3 

Bananas    75.3  1.0       0.8  1.3 

Blackberries  86.3  2.5       0.5  1.3 

Cranberries  88.9  1.5       0.2  0.4 

Currants   85.0  0.7  1.5 

Gooseberries    85.6  0.3  1.0 

Huckleberries    81.9  0.3  0.6 

Raspberries— red  85.8  2.9       0.6  1.0 

Raspberries— black  84.1  2.9       0.6  1.7 

Strawberries  90.4  1.4      0.6  1.0 

Watermelon   92.4  0.3  0.4 

Muskmelon  89.5  2.1       0.6  0.6 

Cucumbers   96.0  0.7       0.5  0.8 

Tomatoes  91.3  0.7       0.7  1.0 

Pumpkin-flesh   93.5  1.0       0.6  0.9 

Pumpkin   seeds  and  stringy 

part 76.9  3.9       1.5  6.0 

Animal  products 

Meat  scrap  1.3  8.0  58.0 

Pork   scrap   0.8  2.2  57.4 

Dried  blood 6.7  6.6  65.1 

Green  bone  6.9  2.2     24.5  22.3 

Fish  scrap  34.0 

Whole  milk  87.2  0.7  3.5 

Skim  milk— raised  90.4  3.1 

Skim  milk — separated  90.6  2.9 

Buttermilk  90.1  3.9 

Milk  albumin  24.8  3.5       3.9  13.9 

Cheese  34.4  3.4  23.7 

Whey  93.8  0.4  0.6 


f  58 


75.6 
74.0 
68.8 
79.1 

17.3 

34.8 

24.7 

8.0 

9.8 

5.5 

6.2 

7.6 

8.5 

9.4 

58.4 

14.3 

13.2 

59.1 

15.7 

5.8 

20.1 

16.5 

14.5 

21.0 

8.4 

8.4 

12.8 

13.1 

16.6 

9.7 

12.6 

6.0 

6.7 

7.2 

1.8 

5.8 

3.9 


5.3 


4.8 
4.7 
5.2 
4.0 
50.9 
1.7 
5.1 


fcft 

1.6 
0.9 

2.1 
2.0 

0.1 
0.1 
0.4 
0.1 
0.1 
0.2 
0.2 
0.4 
1.6 
0.3 
0.8 

0.3 
0.7 
3.2 
0.5 
0.1 

0.8 
1.6 
0.6 
1.0 

0.6 


0.6 

1.0 
0.6 
0.2 

0.2 
0.5 
0.1 


1:8.3 

1:22 

1:17 

1:5.5 

1:5.5 

1:4.3 

1:6 

1 :7-.8 

1:7.8 

1:7.2 

1:6 

1:15 

1:16 
1:21 


1:2.8 

1:7 

1:4.6 


4.8    6.9   1 :2 


32.9 

39.6 

16.3 

16.5 

6.5 

3.7 

0.8 

0.3 

1.0 

3.0 

36.9 

0.1 


1:1.4 

1:1.7 

1:0.6 

1:1.8 

1:0.4 

1:4 

1:2 

1:2 

1:1.6 

1:4.4 

1:4 

1:8.5 


22 
42 
31 
11 
13 
8 
8 
11 
15 
13 
82 

17 
18 
91 
10 
12 
24 
23 
28 
29 
17 
13 
17 
16 
22 
16 
20 
11 
9 
11 
3 
9 
6 

31 

154 

170 

124 

69 

56 

18 

11 

10 

11 

83 

107 

7 


To    Find    the    Values    of   Feed    Mixtures 

In  computing-  the  values  of  possible 
mixtures  of  feeds  from  the  accom- 
panying- table  it  is  more  convenient  to 
make  estimates  on  mixtures  contain- 
ing- 100  pounds,  or  simple  multiples 
and  fractions  of  100  pounds  of  each 
article  used.  When  this  is  done  the 
percentage  fig-ures  in  the  table  give 
the  amount  of  each  element  in  100 
pounds,  and  the  amounts  for  multiples 
or  fractions  of  100  pounds  can  be  writ- 
ten from  the  table  with  mental  calcu- 
lation. Thus  in  the  table  it  is  stated 
that  corn  contains  10.4  per  cent  pro- 
tein, 70.3  per  cent  carbohydrates,  and 
5  per  cent  fat;  and  that  wheat  con- 
tains 11.9  per  cent  protein,  71.9  per 
cent  carbohydrates,  and  2.1  per  cent 
fat.  We  can  calculate  at  sight  that  In 
100  pounds  of  corn  there  are  10.4 
pounds  of  protein,  70.3  pounds  of  car- 
bohydrates and  2.1  pounds  of  fat.  And 
in  the  same  way  we  can  read  off  the 
value  in  100  pounds  of  wheat. 


Suppose  now  we  want  to  get  the 
nutritive  ratio  of  a  mixture  of  equal 
parts  of  corn  and  -wheat.  Using-  100 
pounds  of  each  in  the  calculation  we 
have: 

Protein      Carbohy's. 
Corn    10.4  Ibs.      .    70.3  Ibs. 


Wheat     ....11.9  Ibs. 


71. 9  Ibs. 


22.3  Ibs.        142.21b.«. 


Fat 

5.0  Ibs. 

2.1  Ibs. 

7.1  Ibs. 


The    nutritive    ratio    of    the    mixture 
is  22.3:    (142.2t7.lx2.25)    or 
22.3:   158.2  equals  1:7.1. 

In  this  case  the  result  could  have 
been  reached  by  the  simple  process  of 
taking-  the  mean  of  the  nutritive  ra- 
tios, but  in  general  that  is  not  prac- 
tical. 

To  calculate  the  fuel  value  of  a  mix- 
ture, we  simply  reduce  the  pounds  to 
ounces,  multiply  the  total  ounces  of 
protein  and  carbohydrates  by  116,  the 
ounces  of  fat  by  264,  add  the  two  re- 
sults, which  gives  us  the  total  heat 


H  li  *»?  uhe  whole  amount;  and  then 
hnd  the  heat  value  in  one  ounce  of 
the  mixture.  This  is  the  process  for 
exact  calculations,  and  for  rations 
with  many  ingredients  in  varying 
amounts.  In  ordinary  practice  if  thf 
amounts  of  articles  used  are  n  mul- 
tiples of  100  Ibs.,  the  heat  value  can 
be  determined  with  sufficient  accuracy 
by  adding  the  heat  values  for  one 
ounce  of  each  hundred  pounds  [n  the 
mixture,  and  dividing  the  sum  by  « 
number  of  hundreds  of  pounds.  Thul 
m  a  mixture  of  100  pounds  each 
corn,  wheat  and  oats,  the  sum  of  the 
heat  values  of  an  ounce  of  each  i 
304,  and  the  heat  value  of  an  ounce  of 

bv%mwXh-Uv,e    iS    found    bv    dividing    3ol 
by  3    which  gives  us  101  plus      In  cas 
we   have   200   pounds  of  corn   in   such  I 

?00XnUornnHWe  ,Can   simply  consider   each 

0   pounds  of  corn  as  a  separate  iter 
making    four    items    in    all       Then    th^ 
sum  of  the  heat  values  of  an  ouifce  of 
each  article   in   the  mixture  is   410    and 
the   heat   value   of   one   ounce   is    102  £ 

Digestion  Coefficients 
In  scientific  experiments  in  feeding 
account  sometimes  is  taken  of  the  acf- 
ual  digestibility  of  the  several  ele- 
ments which  are  called  "dieestihlV 
nutrients"  but  which  are,  in  fac^  rare 
ly  completely  digested,  and  which "un- 
der some  conditions  are  very  imper- 
fectly digested.  The  percentage  of 
3IJM,I,bi.1It?  observed  is  called  the 
Coefficient  of  Digestibility."  The 
method  of  using  this  is  to  assume  that 
the  proportion  of  an  element  in  a  feed 
found  to  be  digested  in  a  certain  case 
or  in  the  average  of  a  number  of 
cases,  represents  the  amount  of  the 
element  that  is  actually  digestibfe 
That  is  if  the  protein  in  corn  is  72 
per  cent  digestible,  while  the  carbo- 
hydrates are  95  per  cent,  and  the  fat 
9  per  cent  the  percentages  in  the 
table  do  not  represent  actual  feeding 
values  but  these  must  be  determined 
by. applying  the  coefficients  of  digesti- 

The  appropriateness  of  this  in  scien- 
tific work  where  the  values  of  the 
feeds  used  can  be  determined  by 
laboratory  methods,  and  the  results 
analyzed  and  checked  in  the  same  wav 
is  obvious.  But  to  show  the  imprac- 
ticability of  applying  the  digestion 
coefficients  in  ordinary  feeding  prac- 
tice it  is  only  necessary  to  state  that 
while  the  average  digestibility  of  corn 
in  a  certain  report  including  twenty- 
three  investigations  was  72  per  cent 
the  range  of  digestibility  in  these  in- 
vestigations was  from  58  to  84  per 
cent.  Further,  with  regard  to  the  ap- 
plication of  digestibility  coefficients 
to  -poultry  feeding  it  should  be  under- 
stood that  little  has  been  done  toward 
determining  them  for  poultry,  and  no 
one  knows  to  what  extent  those 
worked  out  with  other  animals  will 
apply  to  poultr".  As  the  reader  who 
may  take  an  interest  in  the  science  of 
feeding  that  will  lead  him  to  take  note 
of  discussions  of  it  elsewhere  will  find 
that  in  some  cases  much  importance  is 
attached  to  the  use  of  coefficients  of 
digestibility  in  determining  the  values 
of  rations,  it  seems  advisable  to  state 
here  the  limitations  on  their  use,  and 
especially  on  their  application  to  poul- 
try feeding. 

Notes   On   The  Table 

(a)  In  calories  per  ounce.    A  calorie 
is  the  amount  of  heat  required  to  raise 
the  temperature  of  one  gram  of  water 
one   degree   centigrade. 

(b)  Including  fiber. 

(c)  The    analyses     of     weeds     here 
given   are  taken   from  Bulletin   101,   of 
the   Minnesota   Experiment  Station.    As 
they    were    made    from     weeds    in    dry 
hay,   and   the   percentages  are  for    dry 
matter,   not  for  the  whole   as   in   most 
analyses    in    this    table,    it     has     been 
thought  best  not  to   undertake   further 
to    express    their   values,    especially   as 
poultry   eat    them    only     in    the    tender 
green    state.      The    great     interest     of 
these   analyses   is    the    high    percentage 
of    protein     in    some     of    the     common 
weeds.     Looking  at   these   figures  it  is 
easy   to   see  why  poultry  that  can  eat 
freely     of      these      common      succulent 
weeds   in   warm   weather   thrive   amaz- 
ingly. 

(d)  As    these     analyses     are     taken 
from  bulletins  on  human   food  and   the 
figures  are  not  fully  given,  I  have  not 
attempted  to  give  the  nutritive  ratios, 
that    were    not    given    in     the     sources 
from  which  they  were  obtained. 


C  H  APTE  R     III 


Principles,  Methods  and  Systems  of  Feeding 

Adapting  Rations  to  Conditions — Development  of  Feeding  Formulas — Energy   Value   the   Best   Measure   of   Feeding 
Value — Importance  of  Variety  in  Grain  Diet — Moist  and  Dry  Mash  Systems  Compared — Com- 
bination of  the  Good  Features  of  Both  the  Best  Practice — Relation  of  Range 
and   Exercise  to   Feeding   Methods. 


IN  the  preceding  chapters  the  nutritive  requirements 
of  poultry  and  the  sources  of  supply  to  meet  these 
requirements  were  discussed.  In  this  chapter  we 
have  to  consider  the  details  of  making  these  supplies 
available,  and  of  getting  both  efficiency  and  economy  in 
feeding.  As  has  been  stated,  feeding  the  common  grains 
and  their  straight  products  to  poultry  is  a  simple  mat- 
ter. So  in  a  study  of  the  principles  of  feeding, — in  fact, 
in  an  initial  determination  of  the  principles  of  poultry 
feeding,  we  begin  with  observation  of  the  results  of 
feeding  a  simple  ration  of  common  grains  and  their  well- 
known  by-products. 

How  Rations  Are  Adapted  to  Conditions 

In  comparing  results  of  feeding  common  grains,  no 
such  differences  in  their  feeding  values  can  be  found,  as 
many  claiming  to  write  with  authority  on  this  subject 


BROODER    CHICKS    AT    BREAKFAST 

Note  these  brooders  placed  at  the  side  of  a  berry  patch,  which  afford  shade 
and  some  feed.  Observe,  too,  that  the  grass  while  worn  close  near  the  brooders, 
is  fairly  long-  at  a  little  distance.  A  range  in  good  condition  for  chickens 
should  be  growing  something  else  at  the  same  time. 


assert  exists.  It  is  not  true  that  hens  or  other  poultry  fed 
exclusively  on  corn  -would  starve  to  death  because  of  a 
lack  of  protein  for,  as  the  reader  may  see  by  referring  to 
the  table  on  page  23,  corn  contains  a  large  amount  of 
protein,  and  as  a  matter  of  fact  some  corn  contains 
much  more  protein  than  some  wheat  and  other  grains 
which  commonly  average  higher  in  this  nutrient.  As  far 
as  is  known,  corn  contains  ample  supplies  of  protein  for 
the  ordinary  growth  and  maintenance  of  poultry,  and  the 
objection  to  using  good  corn  or  corn  products  exclusively 
or  too  freely  (for  the  purpose  in  feeding)  is  not  a  lack  of 
protein  but  an  excess  of  fat.  If  the  accumulation  of  fat  is 

26 


not  objectionable  or  detrimental,  or  if  the  fat  in  the  corn 
is  all  used  to  provide  heat  and  energy,  the  amount 
supplied  is  not  only  an  advantage,  but  if  the  fat 
were  not  obtained  from  corn  it  would  have  to  be  pro- 
vided from  some  other  source,  possibly  at  much  higher 
cost  and  by  special  effort. 

Further,  as  the  first  requirement  of  the  body  is  to 
maintain  itself  at  a  normal  temperature,  and  the  processes 
of  growth  and  production  can  go  on  only  at  such  tem- 
peratuie,  in  cold  weather  poultry  may  not  be  able  to 
get  all  the  heat  they  need  from  the  carbohydrates  and  the 
fat  in  corn.  What  happens  then  is  that  the  protein  in  the 
feed  is  used  for  heat  production,  and  while  protein  has 
peculiar  value  as  a  flesh  former,  as  fuel  it  has  only  as 
much  value  as  the  carbohydrates,  and  less  than  half  the 
value  of  fat. 

By  comparing  the  analyses  of  the  different  common 
grains  as  given  in  the  table  the 
reader  will  see  that  they  are  quite 
similar  in  their  protein  and  carbo- 
hydrate contents,  and  that  in  gen- 
eral they  contain  about  six  or  seven 
times  as  much  carbohydrates  as  pro- 
tein. The  variation  in  fats  is  greater, 
but  with  respect  to  this  they  fall 
into  two  groups:  wheat,  barley,  and 
rye  approximate  2%  of  fat,  which  is 
about  one-sixth  to  one-fifth  of  the 
protein,  and  about  one-thirtieth  of 
their  carbohydrates;  corn  and  oats 
have  5%  of  fat,  which  in  corn  is 
one-half  and  in  oats  about  two- 
fifths  of  the  protein;  and  in  corn 
one-fourteenth,  and  in  oats  one- 
twelfth  of  the  carbohydrates. 

The  comparison  of  results  of 
feeding  corn  and  wheat  is  the  best 
to  make  in  getting  at  the  principles 
of  feeding  because,  while  the  birds 
have  some  preference  for  corn,  they 
eat  wheat  just  as  freely  when  fed  on 
it  alone,  while  with  all  the  other 
grains  the  tendency  is  to  eat  light. 
In  feeding  corn  and  wheat  separate- 
ly, each  being  the  principal  part  of 
the  diet,  it  is  found  that  sometimes 

one  is  the  better  feed,  sometimes  the  other,  and  by  taking 
into  consideration  the  conditions  affecting  bodily  require- 
ments, and  the  effects  of  feeding,  it  becomes  easy  to  de- 
termine how  far  either  grain  will  meet  requirements  or 
serve  the  purposes  of  production  under  any  given  con- 
ditions in  practice. 

Where  fowls  are  confined  and  fed  on  grain,  with  only 
enough  green  feed  to  keep  them  in  condition — not  enough 
to  make  any  substantial  part  of  the  ration — wheat  will  be 
found  to  answer  all  the  requirements  of  maintenance  and 
of  heavy  egg  production  when  temperatures  are  moder- 
ate as  in  spring,  fall,  and  cool  summer  weather.  Under 


PRINCIPLES,  METHODS  AND  SYSTEMS  OF  FEEDING 


27 


BROODER   CHICKS  IN   GRASSY   YARDS— A   GENER  AL  VIEW  AT   GRANDVIEW  FARM,   AURORA,  N.   Y. 
Note    the    colony    houses    for  older  chicks  in  the  distance. 


the  same  conditions  the  feeding  of  corn  exclusively  may 
give  heavier  egg  production  in  hens  that  do  not  readily 
put  on  fat,  but  eventually  is  likely  to  lead  to  some  ac- 
cumulation of  fat,  which  is  beneficial  as  long  as  it  does 
not  become  excessive,  but  detrimental  as  soon  as  it  be- 
gins to  hinder  activity  and  vital  functions. 

In  colder  weather,  or  even  in  a  colder  house,  or  a 
more  exposed  locality,  corn  may  simply  meet  the  main- 
tenance and  production  requirements,  while  wheat  being 
lower  in  fats  is  deficient.  Taking  the  percentages  in 
round  numbers  for  convenience  of  comparison,  we  can 
see  that  if  a  ration  of  corn  containing  10  per  cent  of  pro- 
tein, 70  per  cent  of  carbohydrates,  and  5  per  cent  of  fat 
is  a  suitable  ration  at  a  particular  time,  and  under  certain 
conditions,  then  a  ration  of  wheat  containing  12  per  cent 
of  protein,  72  per  cent  of  carbohydrates,  and  2  per  cent  of 
fat  will  be  deficient  in  carbohydrates  and  fats,  and  the 
deficiency  must  then  be  made  up  by  taking  a  part  of  the 
protein  to  supply  heat  and  energy.  What  would  happen 
in  the  supposed  case  is  this: 

Fat  has  two  and  one-fourth  tirrfts  the  capacity  to  pro- 
duce heat  that  carbohydrates  and  protein  have.  Hence 
the  carbohydrates  and  fat  in  corn  in  this  instance  are 
equal  to  82  per  cent  of  carbohydrates;  and  the  propor- 
tion of  protein  to  carbohydrates  required  is  10  to  82.  In 
wheat  the  total  carbohydrates  and  fat  is  equivalent  to  only 
77  per  cent  of  carbohydrates.  There  is  a  deficiency  of 
five  per  cent  in  the  feed  elements  of  this  class  needed.  It 
is  made  up  by  taking  five  per  cent  out  of  the  protein 
elements  and  using  it  as  "fuel."  This  leaves  only  7  per 
cent  of  protein  available  for  maintenance,  growth,  or  pro- 
duction, against  10  per  cent  in  corn.  That  is,  in  the  case 
and  under  the  conditions  supposed,  corn  is  nearly  fifty 
per  cent  more  efficient  than  wheat  for 
such  service  as  the  feed  performs 
after  providing  heat  and  energy. 

This  does  not  mean  that  if  wheat 
is  at  any  time  an  insufficient  feed 
,  corn  should  be  substituted.  The  ques- 
tion of  the  principal  grain  to  use  is 
a  matter  of  availability  and  cost. 
The  base  of  the  ration  should  be  the 
most  abundant  and  cheapest  grain. 
In  case  that  is  wheat,  and  particularly 
in  sections  where  wheat  is  extensive- 
ly grown  and  corn  is  not.  the  defi- 
ciency of  heat-making  elements  may 
be  made  up,  and  the  full  value  of 
the  flesh  makers  in  the  wheat  con- 
served, by  the  use  of  any  article  of 
feed  which  will  supply  what  carbo- 
hydrates and  fats  are  lacking.  By  giv- 
ing an  amount  of  meat  scrap  which 
would  supply  fat  equivalent  to  five 


per  cent  of  carbohydrates  the  deficiency  would  be  met,, 
and  at  the  same  time  the  protein  would  be  increased 
something  over  one  percent,  or  a  little  over  one-twelfth 
of  its  actual  amount.  Whether  this  addition  to  the  pro- 
tein was  useful  and  economical  would  depend  entirely 
upon  whether  it  was  needed  and  could  be  used  for  flesh 
forming  or  in  egg  production.  In  general  it  is  only  in 
periods  of  growth,  molting,  and  heavy  egg  production 
that  there  is  any  advantage  in  supplying  more  protein 
than  is  contained  in  the  ordinary  grains. 

In  case  corn  appeared  insufficient  for  a  ration,  and 
that  would  be  the  case  in  extreme  cold  weather,  the  ad- 
dition of  meat  scrap  would  supply  the  deficiency,  and  a 
very  little  meat  scrap  might  make  the  fats  and  carbo- 
hydrates sufficient  and  at  the  same  time  add  substantially 
to  the  protein  in  the  ration  and  to  the  results  to  which 
protein  contributes.  So  in  cold  weather  poultry  that  are 
growing,  laying,  or  molting  can  be  fed  rations  rich  in 
fats  and  carbohydrates  without  becoming  overfat,  while 
poultry  that  require  only  a  maintenance  ration  will  keep 
in  good  condition  upon  corn  alone.  In  this  case  they  no 
doubt  use  much  of  the  protein  in  the  corn  for  heat  form- 
ing, but  as  the  corn  is  generally  the  cheapest  feed  obtain- 
able, the  protein  contained  in  it  costs  no  more  than  the 
other  elements,  while  the  protein  contained  in  meat  scrap 
is  more  expensive;  that  is,  where  extra  protein  has  to  be 
supplied  it  usually  costs  more  than  what  is  obtained  in 
the  common  form  in  staple  feeds. 

In  extremely  hot  weather  all  grains  may  be  too  heat- 
ing, and  corn  being  the  most  heating  is  then  of  course, 
the  least  suitable  to  feed  by  itself.  But  as  in  cold  weather 
we  can  supplement  the  deficiency  of  heat-forming  material 
in  grain  by  feeding  meat  scraps  which  are  much  richer  in 


BARRED   AND   WHITE    PLYMOUTH    ROCK   CHICKENS   ON   DOMINION 

EXPERIMENTAL,    FARM,    OTTAWA,    CANADA 
Thrifty   chickens    showing   good    condition    and    good    care    and    feeding. 


28 


HOW  TO  FEED  POULTRY  FOR  ANY  PURPOSE  WITH  PROFIT 


waste  feeds  requires  that  they  be  fed  a  variety.  Hence, 
in  practical  feeding,  we  have  to  deal  not  with  the  com- 
mon grains  which  as  they  grow  contain  and  supply  the 
principal  nutritive  elements  in  about  the  proportions  that 
they  are  required  by  men,  animals,  and  birds  under 
average  conditions  of  temperature  and  other  matters 
affecting  nutritive  requirements,  but  with  mixtures  of 
these  grains  in  numerous  combinations.  The  principles 
upon  which  we  work  in  adjusting  rations  to  different 
conditions  and  for  different  purposes,  however,  are  the 
same  in  all  cases. 

For  the  conditions  in  which  corn  would  supply  all 
the  nutritive  elements  in  their  proper  proportions,  it  is 
obvious  that  a  ration  that  supplied  the  same  elements  in 
the  same  proportions  would  be  the  suitable  ration.  I* 
is  also  plain  that  for  conditions  requiring  more  heat 
elements  than  corn  supplies,  the  mixed  ration  would  have 
to  be  made  more  heating  by  the  addition  of  similar  ele- 
ments; and  that  where  a  corn  ration  was  too  heating,  that 
particular  mixed  ration  would  also  be  too  heating.  The 
principle  upon  which  we  proceed  in  making  mixed  ra- 
tions is  most  easily  illustrated  by  taking  the  case  where. 

fats,  so  in  hot  weather  we  can  reduce  the  heating  effects  a  corn  ration  is  too  heating,  or  too  fattening,  and  there 
of  grains  by  feeding  more  freely  of  bulky,  succulent,  and  is  not  succulent  feed  or  milk  available  to  the  amount  that 
fluid,  or  semi-fluid  feeds,  and  with  an  ample  supply  of  is  necessary  properly  to  reduce  the  corn  ration.  The  de- 
these  it  may  still  be  entirely  practical  to  continue  to  feed  sired  result  is  then  obtained  by  substituting  for  a  part 
corn  without  any  other  grain.  In  fact,  whatever  grain  is  of  the  corn  as  much  of  a  grain  containing  less  carbonace- 
fed  in  extremely  hot  weather,  the 
heating  effects  must  be  counteracted 
in  the  way  described,  and  under  such 
conditions  the  grain  having  the  least 
fat  and  starch  gives  best  results 
when,  as  is  commonly  the  case  with 
poultry  on  limited  range  or  in  con- 
finement, the  supply  of  light,  cooling, 
succulent  feeds  is  not  as  liberal  as  it 
should  be  to  properly  balance  a 
hearty  grain  ration. 

While    it    is    possible — as    has    been 
shown — to     use    a     ration    containing 


TYPICAL    HOUSE    USED    IN    THE    COLONY    POULTRY 
FARMING    DISTRICT    OF    RHODE    ISLAND 


only,  one    kind    of   grain,    and   to    use  A   FIBLD   IN   WHICH   COLONY   POULTRY   HOUSES   LIKE    THE   ABOVE,   AND 
any  kind    of  common    grain   in    that  OF  SIMILAR  TYPES  ARE  DISTRIBUTED 

way   if  the   quality   of  the   article    fed  It   is  very  difficult  to   get   photographs   of   separate   small   houses   that  give 

is   such  that  noultrv  will   eat  it  freelv  a  good  .idea  of  the  looks  of  a  field  containing  many  of  them.     At  a  distance  the* 

y  contrasts  in  the  buildings,  land  and.  stone  walls  are  not   strong  enough  to   show 

(and   the    explanation    of  how   it   can  the  buildings  well. 

be  done  gives  us  the  simplest  case  of 

balancing  rations),  in  good  feeding  practice  there  is  al-  ous  matter  as  is  necessary  to  give  the  poultry  what  pro- 
ways  more  or  less  variety  in  good  rations.  For  this  vari-  tein  they  need  without  giving  them  more  heat-producing 
ety  there  are  two  equally  good  general  reasoms:  poultry  elements  than  is  good  for  them,  or  suitable  for  the  pur- 
like  variety,  and  the  economical  use  of  low  grade  and  pose  for  which  they  are  being  fed. 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  FEEDING  FORMULAS 
In  discussing  feeding  matters  nowadays  we  do  so 
with  an  understanding  of  the  chemical  constituents  of 
different  feeds,  and  of  the  proportions  in  which  they 
should  be  combined  for  various  purposes.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  however,  standard  mashes  of  straight  ground 
products  of  corn  and  oats,  and  of  the  by-products  of 
wheat  flour,  and  the  common  mixtures  of  the  staple 
grains  used  in  poultry  feeding  were  all  worked  out  in 
the  practice  of  poultry  keepers  before  chemists  had  made 
the  studies  of  feeding  which  now  enable  us  to  under- 
stand the  reasons  for  what  is  done,  and  to  use  a  greater 
degree  of  intelligence  in  adding  new  by-products  and 
feeds  to  rations. 

When    poultrymen    began    to    pay   some    attention    to 
SKIDS  ATTACHED  TO  FRONT  GEAR  OF  A  WAGON-          jhe   scientific  aspects   of  the  subject,  there  was  more  or 
FOR  MOVING  COLONY  HOUSES  less  confusion  and  error  in  applying  to  poultry  feeding 

The  gable   roof  building  is   a  cook   and  feed  room.  the  principles  and  formulas  worked  out  by  scientists  in  the 


PRINCIPLES,  METHODS  AND  SYSTEMS  OF  FEEDING 


29 


LARGE  COLONY  HOUSE,  COOK  AND  FEED  HOUSE,  AND  DOUGH  CART  ON 

RHODE    ISLAND   POULTRY    FARM 
The   cook   house    is    built   to   drive   the    cart   through    to   load. 

feeding  of  other  animals.  They  soon  discovered  that  the 
foundation  of  the  science  of  poultry  feeding  was  in  the 
practice  of  the  best  poultrymen.  The  fact  that  a  ration 
adjusted  by  careful  trials  in  practice  to  get  certain  re- 
sults did  produce  those  results,  showed  that  it  was  a 
properly  compounded  ration. 

When  the  rations  used  at  that  time  by  the  best  poul- 
trymen were  analyzed  and  their  values  computed  according 
to  the  proportions  of  the  different  nutritive  elements  each 
contained,  it  was  found  that  the  most  efficient  grain  and 
meat  rations  for  growing  stock  and  for  heavy  egg  pro- 
duction had  very  nearly  the  same  proportions  of  protein 
to  carbonaceous 'elements  that  is  found  in  wheat,  barley, 
and  rye.  The  average  for  a  number  of  good  rations  com- 
puted by  the  writer  at  that  time  was  precisely  the  same 
as  for  barley.  As  computations  of  this  kind  do  not  take 
into  account  the  green  feed  consumed,  which  in  ordinary 
practice  cannot  be  measured  or  weighed  with  sufficient 
accuracy  to  include  its  values  in  the  computation  of  the 
rations  used,  they  are  hot  scientifically  accurate,  yet  they 
are  sufficiently  so  for  common  use.  Before  describing  the 
method  of  making  such  computations  it  is  necessary  to 
explain  the  common  scientific  terms  used  in  dealing  w'th 
feeding  and  with  feed  values. 

It  has  been  shown  that  the  common  grains,  and  the 
mixed  rations  as  worked  out  by  the  best  practical  poultry- 
men  before  the  days  of  scientific  study  of  poultry  feeding, 
contain  the  relative  proportions  of  protein  and  of  carbo- 
i  aceous  materials  which  poultry  require  under  average, 
ordinary  conditions,  and  that  with  variations  from  those 
conditions,  or  to  secure  extraordinary  results,  the  relative 
proportions  of  the  different  classes  of  feed  elements  are 
increased  or  diminished  as  the  case  requires.  This  rela- 
tion between  protein  or  flesh-forming  elements,  and  car- 
bohydrates and  fats  (the  heat  and  energy  producing  ele- 
ments), reduced  to  terms  of  carbohydrates  by  multiplying 
by  2.25  is  called  the  nutritive  ratio,  or  nutrient  ratio. 


Each  natural  whole  article  of  feed 
has  a  nutritive  ratio  which  is  con- 
stant to  all  intents  and  purposes  of 
practical  feeding.  In  the  straight  mill 
products  of  grains  the  ratio  is  also 
constant,  but  in  by-products  of  vari- 
able composition  it  also  is  variable, 
of  course,  and  that  is  wjay  the  neces- 
sity arose  for  official  inspection  and 
analysis  of  such  products.  In  mix- 
tures of  any  number  of  ingredients, 
the  nutritive  ratio  for  the  mixture  is 
computed  by  first  computing  the  total 
amount  of  each  of  the  principal  feed 
elements  contained  in  it  and  then 
finding  the  ratio  of  the  protein  to 

the  carbonaceous   matter,  the  fat  being  reckoned  at  two 
and  one-fourth  times  the  value  of  the  carbohydrates. 

For  simplicity  and  convenience  of  comparison,  nu- 
tritive ratios  are  commonly  expressed  in  their  lowest 
terms,  and  as  the  term  representing  the  protein  is  always 
the  smaller  one,  the  protein  is  always  represented  by  1. 
An  article  or  mixture  in  which  the  difference  in  the 
numerical  values  of  the  terms  representing  the  relation  of 
its  protein  to  its  carbonaceous  elements  is  small  is  said  to 
have  a  narrow  nutritive  ratio:  One  in  which  the  differ- 


PERHAPS    THE    MOST    POPULAR    STYLE    OF   CART   IN 

THE    LITTLE   COMPTON   COLONY    POULTRY 

FARMING   DISTRICT 

The  low  platform  makes  it  easy  for  the  feeder.  The 
barrel  and  box  are  movable,  and  the  cart  can  be  used  for 
many  purposes  besides  feeding. 


THE   DOUGH    CART    SEEN   IN   UPPER   PICTURE 
This  cart  has  the  mash  box  and  water  barrel  accessi- 
ble at  the  tail,  a  deep  box  for  grain  in  the  middle  of  the 
frame,     and    a    coop    for    moving    chickens    in     front — a 
complete  equipment. 

ence  is  relatively  great  is  said  to  have  a  wide  nutritive 
ratio.  An  article,  mixture,  or  ration  having  a  narrow 
nutritive  ratio  is  therefore  a  relatively  highly  nitrogenous 
feed,  while  one  having  a  wide  ratio  is  relatively  a  highly 
carbonaceous  feed.  To  make  a  ration  narrower  is  to  in- 
crease the  amount  and  proportion  of  its  protein;  to  make 
it  wider  is  to  increase  the  amount  and  proportion  of  its 
carbohydrates  or  fats,  or  both. 

Early  investigators  and  students  of  feeding  subjects 
generally  regarded  the  nutritive  ratio  as  the  best  measure 
of  value  of  a  feed.  On  the  assumption  that  flesh-forming 
elements  were  more  essential  they  reasoned  that  the 
higher  the  proportion  of  these  an  article  contained  the 
greater  was  its  feeding  value,  and  if  they  did  not  ex- 
pressly state  it,  their  statements  still  conveyed  to  most 
persons  not  versed  in  the  science  the  impression  that  the 
more  protein  in  the  feed  the  better  the  results  would  be. 
It  was  customary  to  compute  the  values  of  feeds  in  terms 
of  the  heat  units  they  contained  and  to  give  these  with 
the  nutritive  ratios,  but  the  fuel  value,  or  potential  energy, 


HOW  TO  FEED  POULTRY  FOR  ANY  PURPOSE  WITH  PROFIT 


as  it  is  called,  was  for  a  long  time  regarded  as  having  no 
special  significance  in  relation  to  feed  values  in  nutrition. 
After  a  time,  however,  it  was  noted  in  observations 
and  comparisons  of  rations  that  the  results  seemed  to 
follow  potential  energy  values  more  closely  than  they  did 
nutritive  ratios.  Two  articles  or  rations  having  the  same 
nutritive  ratio  might  not  give  the  same  results  in  feeding, 


A   TWO-WHEELED    CART    ESPECIALLY    FOR    WATER 
This  was  used  on  the  farm  of  P.  R.  Park  when  he  was 
popularizing-    dry    feeding.      Only    water    had    to    be    dis- 
tributed daily. 

tout  two  articles  or  rations  having  the  same  potential 
•energy  would  usually  appear  to  be  much  the  same  in  feed- 
ing value.  The  most  important  practical  result  of  this  ob- 
seivation  was  to  give  a  better  appreciation  of  the  value  of 
the  carbonaceous  elements  in  feeds,  and  to  emphasize  the 
•fact  that  while  protein  is  the  substantial  structural  element, 
the  efficient  and  economical  use  of  it  depends  upon  the 
supply  of  carbonaceous  material  being  so  ample  for  every 
requirement  of  heat  and  energy  that  the  organism  can 
function  perfectly  without  using  protein  for  any  other 
than  its  special  purpose.  The  reason  that  the  nutritive 
ratio  is  of  no  value  as  a  measure  of  the  value  of  a  feed 
•or  ration  is  plain  when  we  consider  that  it  is  merely  an 
expression  of  the  relative  amounts  of  the  two  classes  of 
nutrients  in  the  article,  while  the  potential  energy  is  the 
-actual  sum  of  the  values  of  all  the  nutrients  in  a  specific 
-amount  (one  pound  or  one  ounce)  of  the  feed  for  the 
•purpose  for  which  the  carbonaceous  elements  are  used, 
.and  for  which  the  protein  will  be  used  should  the  special 
heat  and  energy-producing  elements  be  at  any  time  in- 
sufficient for  their  special  service. 

Comparison  of  the  potential  energy  values  of  feeds 
is  therefore  a  serviceable  method  of  determining  their  re- 
lative feeding  values,  though  neither  that  or  any  other 
single  principle  can  be  taken  as  an  always  reliable  guide, 
for  it  will  be  found  again  and  again  that  things  which  by 
a  certain  standard  of  comparison  appear  of  nearly  equal 
value  actually  have  very  different  values  and  effects  in 
feeding.  This  sometimes  is  plainly  due  to  the  presence 
in  the  feed  of  unpalatable,  non-nutritious  elements,  which 
are  not  included  in  computations  of  values  of  the  nutrients 
in  it  though  they  appear  in  a  statement  of  its  analysis, 
and  their  presence  affects  the  palatability  as  well  as  the 
nutritive  value  of  an  article. 

The  relations  of  other  elements  in  feeds,  and  espe- 
cially of  water  and  fiber,  which  are  sometimes  present  in 
large  quantities,  is  best  explained  and  illustrated  by  a  few 
compaiisons  of  articles  mentioned  in  the  table  on  pages 
23  to  25.  Buckwheat  and  tomatoes  have  the  same  nutritive 
ratio — 1:7,  but  buckwheat  has  a  potential  energy  of  83 
l.eat  units  per  ounce,  while  tomatoes  have  a  potential 


energy  of  only  9  heat  units  per  ounce:  that  is,  an  ounce 
of  buckwheat  will  provide  more  than  nine  times  the  heat 
and  energy  that  an  ounce  of  tomatoes  will.  The  differ- 
ence is  due  to  the  fact  that  tomatoes  are  more  than  nine- 
tenths  water,  while  buckwheat  is  only  one-eighth  water. 

Green  grass  clippings  have  the  same  nutritive  ratio, 
1:7,  but  there  are  15  heat  units  in  an  ounce  of  green 
grass,  sixty  per  cent  more  than  in  tomatoes,  because  grass 
contains  less  water  and  correspondingly  more  of  solid 
nutritive  elements.  Lettuce  and  buckwheat  middlings 
have  the  same  nutritive  ratio,  1:2.1,  but  lettuce  with  a 
potential  energy  of  4  provides  only  one-twenty-fifth  as 
much  heat  and  energy  as  buckwheat  middlings  with  a 
potential  energy  of  101.  Lettuce  is  95.9%  water,  buck- 
wheat middlings,  13.2%.  Lettuce  and  cucumbers  are  the 
lightest  and  most  cooling  of  all  vegetable  feeds,  hence 
their  popularity  with'  both  people  and  poultry  to  offset 
the  effects  of  heavy  grain  and  meat  diets. 

Corn  meal  and  timothy  hay  have  nearly  the  same 
nutritive  ratio;  corn  meal  1:8.5,  and  timothy  1:8.7.  The 
relation  of  their  nutrients  is  practically  the  same,  but 
corn  meal  has  a  potential  energy  of  100,  while  timothy 
has  a  potential  energy  of  only  66,  and  corn  meal  is  a  palat- 
able feed,  capable  of  sustaining  life,  growth,  and  pro- 
duction for  considerable  periods,  while  timothy  hay  is 
practically  worthless  for  poultry.  Here  the  conspicuous 
difference  is  in  the  structure  of  the  articles  and  in  the 
relative  amounts  of  indigestible  fiber.  Corn  meal  has  only 
1.9  per  cent  of  fiber,  timothy  hay  has  29  per  cent.  We  can 
see  at  a  glance  also,  in  comparing  potential  energies  of 
these  articles,  that  even  if  the  fiber  could  be  removed 
from  timothy  hay  and  the  digestible  nutrients  fed  to  poul- 
try, they  would  have  to  consume  relatively  large  quanti- 
ties of  it  to  give  the  results  obtained  by  concentrated 
feeds,  and  their  digestive  organs  generally  have  not  the 
capacity  for  doing  this. 

Poultry  will  eat  fibrous  feeds  freely  only  in  the  green 
state,  or,  as  in  case  of  alfalfa  and  clover  especially  cured 
for  poultry,  when  cured  in  the  green  state.  The  grains 
which  are  most  palatable  to  them  are  those  which  contain 
from  about  2  to  3  per  cent  of  fiber.  Knowing  this,  and 
usually  having  had  opportunity  to  observe  the  indiffer- 
ence of  poultry  to  a  grain  with  as  much  fiber  as  even  the 
best  oats,  when  they  have  a  choice  between  that  and  a 
smooth  grain,  the  poultry  feeder  can  tell  at  a  glance  at 


TWO  WHEELED  CART  FOR  BOTH  FEED  AND  WATER 
USED  ON  A  RHODE  ISLAND   FARM 


PRINCIPLES,  METHODS  AND  SYSTEMS  OF  FEEDING 


31 


the  analysis  of  a  grain  with  the  feeding  properties  of 
which  he  is  not  familiar,  whether  the  amount  of  fiber  in 
it  is  so  large  that  it  will  not  make  a  satisfactory  feed  for 
a  staple.  Also  in  considering  waste  products  containing 
large  amounts  of  fiber  he  can  judge  at  sight  of  the  state- 
ment of  the  fiber  in  a  feed  whether  that  element  is  present 
in  excessive  quantity.  • 

A  feed  containing  a  large  amount  of  fiber  and  also 
rich  in  protein  or  fat  might  be  a  serviceable  feed,  if  the 
addition  of  small  or  moderate  quantities  of  it  to  a  feed 
lacking  in  fat  or  in  protein  would  supply  the  deficiency 
without  unduly  increasing  the  amount  of  fiber  in  the  whole 
ration.  But  if  in  order  to  supply  the  required  amount  of 
digestible  nutrients,  the  amount  of  fiber  is  increased  to 
an  extent  that  makes  the  mixture  unpalatable  to  the  birds, 
the  effect  may  be  to  decrease  the  consumption  of  feed 
to  such  an  extent  that  the  total  nutrients  eaten  is  less 
than  it  was  before. 

What  science  can  teach  us  of  feeding  is  of  great  ser- 
vice when  intelligently  used  in  connection  with  ordinary 
observation  and  practical  experience.  The  final  test  of  the 
value  of  any  feed  or  combination  of  feeds  is  the  results 
obtained  both  in  production  of  flesh,  eggs,  and  feathers, 
and  in  keeping  the  poultry  healthy  and  thrifty.  To  a 
limited  extent  we  can  secure  quite  free  consumption  of 
feeds  that  are  not  the  most  attractive  to  poultry  by  with- 
holding more  attractive  feeds  that  are  not  so  available, 
or  sometimes  by  accustoming  the  poultry  to  a  ration  in 
which  the — to  them — more  desirable  article  appears  only 
at  intervals  as  an  extra.  Details  as  to  this  will  be  given 
farther  on.  As  far  as  they  harmonize  with  results  ob- 
tained in  practice,  scientific  methods  of  estimating  values 
are  useful.  Where  a  lack  of  harmony  appears,  it  is  either 
because  the  observation  of  the  poultryman  or  the  formula 
of  the  scientist  is  inadequate  and  gives  occasion  for  some 
error.  We  cannot  look  for  perfection  in  either  phase  of 
the  study  of  feeding  questions. 

Since    investigators  of   matters    relating  to    nutrition 
•discarded  the  idea    that  rations    should  be    compounded 
with  the  view  to  making  them  exactly  meet  the  require- 
ments of  the  animal,  the  compounding  and  balancing  of 
rations  has  been  placed  on  a  much   simpler,  more  prac- 
tical, and  more  successful  basis.    Persons  who  are  well- 
informed  on  the  subject  no  longer  regard  science  in  feed- 
ing as  a  means  of  exactly  adjusting  the  supplies  of  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  nutrients  to  the  requirements  of  an  organ- 
ism— mammal  or  bird.    They  recognize  rather  that  only 
the   larger   adjustments   in   rations   can   be   made   by   the 
feeder,  and  that  the  minor  adjustments  must  be  left  to 
nature — to  the   instincts  and  appetites   of  the   birds,  and 
to  the  capacity  of  the  system  to  convert  surplus  nutritive 
matter  in  excess  of  its  immediate  requirements  into  a  re- 
serve stored  in  the  body  for  future  emergencies. 

In  accordance  with  this  general  principle  it  is  usual 
now  in  feeding  practice  to  make  the  grain  rations  to  suit 
the  requirements  of  growing  stock  and  of  laying  and 
breeding  stock  for  conditions  existing  during  the  greater 
part  of  the  season  or  of  the  year,  and  then  to  modify  them 
as  necessary  for  wide  changes  in  conditions,  doing  this 
partly  through  variations  in  the  amounts  of  one  or  more 
of  the  principal  constituents  of  the  grain  ration,  and  partly 
by  increasing  or  decreasing  meat  products  or  green  feeds, 
as  the  conditions  require.  The  mode  of  procedure  in  this 
respect  was  briefly  described  on  pages  27-8,  and  will  be 
treated  more  in  detail  in  the  discussion  of  particular  ra- 
tions and  of  methods  of  feeding. 


The  Question  of  Variety  in  Grain 

It  has  been  shown,  and  the  fact  emphasized,  that  our 
common  grains  are  nearly  the  same  in  composition,  as 
regards  the  principal  nutrients,  and  that  they  have  the 
nutrients  in  proportions  near  the  average  requirements  of 
poultry  for  maintenance  and  moderate  growth  and  pro- 
duction. Scientific  students  of  feeding  tell  us  that  it 
makes  no  difference  to  the  omnivorous  animal  organism 
w.hether  its  supplies  of  flesh  formers  and  heat  and  energy 
pioducers  come  from  animal  or  vegetable  substances — 
from  one  feed  or  another.  The  main  thing  is  that  they 
shall  be  in  sufficient  supply.  The  elements  as  obtained 
from  some  feeds  seem  to  be  more  easily  or  more  fully 
digestible  than  as  obtained  from  others,  but  as  they  are 
100  per  cent  digestible  in  comparatively  few  cases,  this  is 
merely  a  matter  of  slightly  different  degrees  of  digest- 
ibility in  feeds. 

But  while  theoretically,  and  practically  for  short 
periods,  animals  may  live  on  nutrients  from  a  single  feed, 
it  needs  but  a  little  experience  in  the  feeding  of  animals 
of  any  kind  to  show  that  they  will  not  thrive  without  a 
variety  of  feed,  and  in  feeding  poultry  one  quickly  learns 
that  they  not  only  want  variety  in  the  way  of  properly 
balanced  supplies  'of  the  different  classes  of  feeds — grains, 
animal  feeds,  and  vegetable  feeds,  but  that  in  each  of 
these  they  prefer  some  variety,  and  that  they  thrive  best 
and  are  most  productive  when  the  feeder  caters  a  little  bit 
to  their  appetites.  This  is  a  matter  to  which  neither  the 
ordinary  farm  poultry  keeper,  nor  the  back-yard  poultry 
keeper  whose  table  waste  constitutes  an  important  part  of 
the  feed  of  a  few  hens,  needs  to  give  particular  thought. 
In  both  of  those  cases,  a  considerable  variety  is  incidental 
to  the  conditions.  But  where  a  farm  is  heavily  stocked 
with  poultry,  or  a  city  flock  is  so  large  that  the  waste 
from  the  family  table  is  but  an  insignificant  part  of  the 
ration,  the  question  of  providing  a  reasonable  amount  of 
variety  in  feed  and  doing  so  economically,  becomes  one 
of  considerable  importance. 

The  student  of  poultry  feeding  can  best  appreciate 
the  occasion  for  feeding  a  variety  to  poultry,  and  the 
possibilities  of  making  variety  from  a  limited  number  of 
articles,  if  he  considers  the  similarity  in  tastes  between 
people  and  poultry,  and  the  ways  and  means  adopted  in 
domestic  economy  for  varying  a  simple  diet.  The  good 
cook  makes  a  great  variety  of  things  by  cooking  a  few 
staple  foods  in  different  ways,  and  by  varying  the  com- 


LOW     WHEELED     FEEDING    AND     WATERING     CART 

USED  AT  AUSTIN  GOOSE  FATTENING  FARM, 

MANSFIELD,  MASSACHUSETTS 


32 


HOW  TO  FEED  POULTRY  FOR  ANY  PURPOSE  WITH  PROFIT 


binations.  In  the  same  way,  though  by  cruder  processes 
and  with  narrower  limits  imposed  by  the  need  of  always 
making  a  profit,  the  good  poultry  feeder  gives  to  the  ra- 
tions he  feeds  enough  variety  to  keep  the  birds'  appetites 
keen,  and  to  secure  the  largest  consumption  of  feed  by 
each  bird  that  it  can  digest  and  assimilate,  and  from 
which  it  can  turn  out  a  profitable  commodity  while  still 
keeping  itself  in  good  condition  for  further  service. 

The  poultry  keeper  who  grows  his  grain,  or  who 
buys  and  mixes 
his  own  feeds 
needs  to  consider 
the  question  of 
variety  in  grains 
much  more  than 
the  one  who 
buys  ready- 
mixed  feeds.  As 
has  been  stated, 
the  manufacturer 
of  c  o  m  m  e  rcial 
mixed  feeds 
makes  a  point  of 
securing  good 
variety  b  o  t  h  in  EMDEN  GOOSE  AT  HER  NEST 

his  mash  mixtures  and  his  scratch  mixtures.  He  is  so 
diligent  in  getting  every  sort  of  grain,  seed,  or  mill  by- 
product that  will  give  appetizing  variety  to  the  feeds  he 
sells  that  he  almost  monopolizes  the  accessible  supplies. 
And  as  the  grains  the  poultryman  grows  or  buys  in  quan- 
tity are  few  in  number,  he  must  give  particular  attention 
to  the  matter  of  feeding  them  in  different  ways,  and  also 
must  be  more  careful  to  supply  variety  in  the  other  classes 
of  poultry  feeds. 

In  mashes  of  mixed  mill  stuffs,  variety  can  be  obtained 
by  occasionally  making  the  mash  different  in  composition. 
Thus  if  the  moist  mash  usually  fed  is  a  mixture  of  corn 
meal,  ground  oats,  and  wheat  bran  in  equal  parts,  with  5 
per  cent  of  meat  scrap,  and  the  birds  begin  to  seem  a  lit- 
tle indifferent  to  it,  an  occasional  variation  by  omitting 
the  bran,  and  perhaps  at  the  same  time  doubling  the 
amount  of  meat  scrap,  may  be  greatly  appreciated.  They 


will  not  eat  as  much,  as  a  rule,  of  the  richer  mash,  but 
they  will  relish  it  more;  and  while  it  would  not  be  a 
good  mash  for  continuous  feeding,  using  it  occasionally 
varies  the  monotony  of  the  uniform  mash  with  always 
the  same  ingredients  in  the  same  proportions.  In  mak- 
ing such  variations  the  feeder  must  use  judgment  of 
course,  taking  into  consideration .  the  condition  of  the 
birds  and  also  temperature  conditions.  The  variation 
mentioned  by  way  of  illustration  would  not  be  right  for 
hens  that  were  becoming  fat,  nor  would  it  be  appropriate 
in  extreme  warm  weather.  Either  of  these  conditions 
would  call  for  reducing  heating  elements. 

Raw  or  Cooked  Feeds 

Until  some  fifteen  years  ago  facilities  for  cooking  a 
part  of  the  feed  for  poultry  were  regarded  as  a  necessary 
part  of  the  equipment  of  an  up-to-date  plant  for  the  pro- 
duction of  fowls  and  eggs,  while  the  small  poultry  keeper 
who  did  not  have  stock  enough  to  warrant  special  appli- 
ances for  cooking  for  the  poultry  relied  upon  a  big  pot 
on  the  kitchen  stove.  The  cooking  of  feed  for  poultry  was 
sometimes  overdone  in  the  old  days.  People  did  too 
much  of  it,  and  made  too  much  work  of  what  they  did. 
But  of  late  years  the  tendency  is  to  go  to  the  other  ex- 
treme, and  rigid  adherence  to  systems  that  do  not  call  for 
regular  cooking  leads  to  neglect  to  provide  even  such 
facilities  for  cooking  poultry  feed  as  are  almost  essential 
if  the  poultry  keeper  is  to  be  prepared  to  use  all  available 
wastes  to  the  best  advantage. 

The  economical  use  of  such  things  as  small  potatoes, 
beets,  carrots,  and  turnips  for  poultry,  requires  that  they 


A  PAIR  OF  AFRICAN  GEESE  AT  THE  RHODE  ISLAND 
EXPERIMENT    STATION 


FLOCK    OF    BREEDING    GEESE — MIXED    BREEDS — AS 

COMMONLY     USED     IN     GOOSE     GROWING 

DISTRICTS 

This  flock  produced  from  four  to  five  hundred  gos- 
lings a  year.  Nearly  all  their  feed  was  obtained  from 
the  pasture. 

be  either  cooked  or  cut  fine  in  a  root  cutter.  We  can 
fasten  large  roots  in  poultry  houses  so  that  the  poultry 
can  pick  them  to  pieces,  but  with  small  roots  this  cannot 
be  done,  and  if  they  are  given  without  cutting  they  are 
under  the  fowls'  feet,  rubbed  in  the  dirt  of  the  floor,  and 
soon  become  so  soiled  that  the  birds  have  to  be  famishing 
for  succulent  feed  or  they  will  not  eat  them.  Cut  in  a 
root  cutter  and  fed  raw,  there  is  less  waste  but  it  still 
is  considerable,  as  the  birds  pick  the  stuff  over  and  scat- 
ter it  more  or  less.  Cooked  until  soft,  and  then  mixed 
with  meal  and  bran,  and  a  little  meat  meal  to  flavor  it 
more  highly,  such  waste  roots  make  a  mash  that  the  birds 
gieatly  prefer  to  any  raw  mash,  and  the  full  feeding 
value  of  the  roots  is  secured. 

Onions  which  are  much  relished  in  any  form  by  poul- 
try, and  generally  considered  very  beneficial,  cannot  be 
fed  raw  to  laying  hens,  or  to  poultry  from  which  birds 
are  being  taken  to  kill  for  the  table,  because  raw  onions 


PRINCIPLES,  METHODS  AND  SYSTEMS  OF  FEEDING 


33 


give  their  flavor  to  both  the  flesh  and  the  eggs.  But 
cooked  onions  may  be  fed  as  freely  as  desired  without 
imparting  any  undesirable  flavor.  Oats  of  such  inferior 
quality  that  poultry  will  not  eat  much  of  them  raw,  will 
be  eaten  with  relish  when  boiled,  or  even  thoroughly 
soaked  in  warm  water.  Meat  that  is  slightly  tainted,  as 
waste  meat  scraps  often  are,  is  not  a  good  feed  for  poul- 
try. Though  they  will  eat  it  freely,  and  some  may  not 
be  injured  by  it,  there  are  many  birds  that  are  especially 
susceptible,  particularly  birds  kept  in  rather  close  con- 
finement and  fed  on-  heavy  rations.  Thorough  cooking 
of  such  meat  greatly  reduces,  if  it  does  not  entirely 
eliminate  the  danger  in  feeding  it. 


SYSTEMS  OF  POULTRY  FEEDING 

T  N  feeding  poultry  two  general  systems  are  in  use,  the 
differences  between  them  being  made  by  adjustment 
in  each  to  suit  the  method  of  feeding  the  mash,  which  in 
one  case  is  fed  moist,  and  in  the  other  dry.  While  some 
poultry  keepers  rigidly  follow  either  one  system  or  the 
other,  that  is  not  generally  the  best  practice.  The  best 
results  are  obtained  by  combining  some  features  of  the 
two.  Before  discussing  typical  suitable  combinations  we 
will  consider  these  two  systems  separately,  taking  the 
older  system  first. 

In  the  moist  mash  system  of  feeding,  the  ground 
feeds  given  are  mixed  with  water  or  milk,  and  fed  at  a 
regular  time  daily,  the  amount  given  at  that  time  being 
usually  carefully  adjusted  to  the  appetites  of  the  birds, 
the  idea  being  to  give  only  as  much  as  they  will  clean  up 
in  a  period  of  twenty  to  thirty  minutes,  or  occasionally 
a  longer  period.  The  hard  grains  used  are  also  generally 
given  at  particular  times,  and  in  such  amounts  as  will  be 
eaten  before  the  next  feeding.  In  this  system  as  usually 
applied,  the  aim  is  to  feed  well,  yet  never  so  much  that 
the  birds  will  not  have  good  appetites  for  the  next  meal. 
The  meat  is  usually  fed  in  the  mash,  and  the  vegetable 
feed  partly  in  the  mash  and  partly  in  other  forms. 

In  the  dry  mash  system  the  ground  feeds,  including 
meat  scrap  or  other  ground  meat  preparations,  are  fed 
dry  in  hoppers,  which  are  either  accessible  to  the  birds 
at  all  times,  or  are  open  for  quite  a  long  time  daily — 
several  hours  or  more.  The  grains  are  usually  fed  in  the 
same  manner  as  in  the  other  system,  but  with  less  at- 
tention to  regularity  in  time  of  feeding  when  the  dry 


mash  is  accessible  at  all  times.  Fine  clover  or  alfalfa 
meal  is  given  in  the  mash,  but  all  other  vegetable  feeds 
must  be  given  separately. 

Dry  Mash  Feeding 

The  system  of  dry  mash  feeding  was  developed  to 
avoid  certain  common  troubles  in  the  use  of  moist  mashes. 
The  making  of  a 
good  moist  mash 
is  not  a  difficult 
thing,  but  if  it  is 
not  done  with  due 
care  to  secure 
proper  consistency 
in  the  mixture  and 
to  have  it  appetiz- 
ing to  the  birds, 
the  results  are 
very  unsatisfac- 
tory. Either  they 
do  not  eat  it  well, 
or  indigestion  and 
bowel  troubles  de- 
velop. By  giving 
the  mash  dry  the 
ill  effects  of  im- 
properly  made 
moist  mashes  are  GOSLINGS  ABOUT  TWO  WEEKS  OLD 
IN  SMALL  COOP  AND  YARD 


Most   of   the   geese   start  life   this  way 
— in  small  flocks. 


avoided,  but  the 
good  results  of 
using  properly 

made  moist  mashes  are  not  secured  unless  the  feeding  of 
dry  mash  is  supplemented  by  special  provision  to  insure 
abundance  of  succulent  feed,  which  becomes  of  even  more 
importance  in  dry  feeding  than  when  the  moist  mash  is 
used.  Fowls  fed  on  a  dry  mash  must  either  drink  more 
water  or  hp,,e  a  great  deal  more  succulent  feed.  Poultry 
do  not  liko  a  dry  mash  as  well  as  a  properly  made  moist 
mash,  and  will  not  eat  it  as  readily  when  the  dry  mash 
contains  the  same  proportion  of  animal  matter  that  is 
usually  fed  in  a  moist  mash.  To  make  a  dry  mash  appe- 
tizing to  them,  the  meat  scrap,  fish  scrap,  or  similar  sub- 
stance must  be  considerably  increased.  This  can  be 
done  with  safety  and  with  generally  good  results  if  the 
birds  are  allowed  to  balance  their  own  rations  of  dry 
mash  and  hard  grain — if  the  method  of  feeding  is  such 
that  they  can  get  all  the  grain  they  want,  are  well  sup- 
plied with  succulent  feed,  and  only  what  dry  mash  they 
want  under  such  conditions. 

When   birds   are   so   fed,   the  amount  of  animal   mat- 
ter  in   the   mash   may   be    increased   to   20,   25    or   30   per 


THOUSANDS  OF  GEESE  ON  A  FATTENING  FARM — THE  PICTURE  SHOWS  ONLY  ONE  CORNER  OF  THE  FARM 


34 


cent  without  bad  effects,  whereas  a  very  slight  increase 
in  the  amount  in  a  moist  mash  would  almost  immediately 
cause  bowel  trouble.  If  poultry  are  kept  short  of  hard 
grain  and  vegetable  feed,  and  at  the  same  time  fed  a 
highly  concentrated  dry  mash  with  a  large  percentage  of 
animal  matter,  they  will  eat  the  mash  freely,  and  for  a 
t.'me  it  is  likely  to  give  remarkably  good  results. 
Before  long,  however,  this  highly  concentrated  ration 
produces  acute 
digestive  d  i  s  o  r- 
ders,  and  leads 
to  heavy  losses. 
This  danger  in 
dry  f  e  e  d  i  n  g;  if 
not  properly 
guarded  against, 
takes  from  it  the 
advantage  of 
safety  which  is 
one  of  the  prin- 
cipal induce- 
ments  for  using 
it.  As  the  method 
of  guarding 
against  it  is  sim- 
ply to  feed  the 
birds  so  well 
otherwise  that 
they  will  not  be 
tempted  to  eat 
rich  dry  mash  in 
such  amounts 
that  they  get  too 
much  concentrat- 
ed animal  feed, 
the  regulation  oi 
this  point  is  a 
simple  matter. 

It  is  c  1  a  i  m  e  d 

by  advocates  of  dry  mash  feeding  who  are  opposed  to  the 
use  of  moist  mashes,  that  the  feeding  of  dry  mash  saves 
labor.  This  is  a  point  that  has  to  be  considered  according 
to  the  circumstances  in  the  case,  and  with  due  regard  for 
.  the  fact  that  when  dry  mashes  are  used  special  provi- 
sions are  often,  if  not  generally,  necessary  to  supply 
succulent  feed.  It  was  this  necessity  that  brought  the 
use  of  sprouted  oats  for  green  feed  into  common  use. 
While  there  are  no  doubt  many  instances  where  a  net 
saving  of  labor  is  made  by  using  dry  mashes,  it  is  doubt- 
ful whether  that  is  generally  the  case.  The  real  advantage 
as  regards  labor  gained  by  the  feeding  of  a  dry  mash 
always  accessible  to  the  birds  is  that  it  gives  greater 
elasticity  to  the  poultryman's  daily  routine,  relieving  him 
of  the  necessity  of  following  a  time  schedule  closely,  and 
even  permitting  wide  departures  from  it,  in  emergencies, 
without  any  serious  effects. 

And  the  great  advantage  of  the.  dry  mash  method 
over  the  other,  as  both  were  practiced  when  dry  mash 
feeding  first  came  in  vogue,  is  that  with  a  palatable  dry 
mash  always  before  the  birds  none  of  them  ever  need 
go  hungry.  In  ordinary  practice  the  effort  to  feed  poultry 
exactly  in  accordance  with  their  requirements  either  as  to 
the  kinds  of  feed  given  or  as  to  the  quality,  does  not  work 
well.  To  feed  just  what  each  lot  of  birds  will  eat  up  clean 
before  the  next  meal,  requires  long  experience,  close  ob- 
servation, good  judgment,  and  practically  constant  attend- 
ance. It  makes  feeding  the  part  of  the  routine  of  poultry 
keeping  to  which  every  other  part  of  the  work  must  con- 


HOPPER  FOR  GRAIN,  SMALL  BOX 

FOR   MEAT    SCRAP   AND   PAIL 

FOR  WATER 

The  usual  feeding  appliances  in 
the  colony  houses  in  the  soft  roaster 
district  o.f  New  England. 


form,  and  gives  the  poultry  keeper  opportunity  for  only 
such  other  work  as  can  be  done  in  the  intervals  between 
feedings.  On  a  plant  so  large  that  the  greater  part  of  one 
man's  time  can  be  taken  up  in  feeding,  watering,  and  other 
daily  routine,  while  someone  else  looks  after  the  many 
other  things  to  be  done,  this  may  not  be  a  disadvantage; 
but  on  most  poultry  plants,  whether  taking  all  one  man's 
time  or  less,  one  person  has  to  look  after  everything,  and 
when  the  feeding  is  on  a  rigid  three  meals  a  day  schedule 
it  will  often  happen  that  a  meal  is  neglected,  or  given 
hastily  and  not  in  sufficient  amount.  This  cannot  be 
avoided,  for  there  are  all  sorts  of  demands  upon  the 
poultry  keeper's  time;  and  many  of  them,  of  a  nature 
that  will  not  wait,  come  right  at  feeding  time  so  often 
that  the  schedule  cannot  be  closely  followed. 

In  comparing  results  from  the  different  systems,  we 
must  discriminate  between  instances  where  people  who 
got  poor  results  when  using  moist  mashes  get  much  bet- 
ter results  by  the  use  of  a  dry  mash,  and  instances  where 
the  poultry  keeper  made  a  living  profit  by  either  system. 
When  this  is  done,  the  dry  mash  system  appears  safest 
for  the  novice,  and  the  one  by  which  he  is  surest  of  get- 
ting fairly  good  results  at  the  start.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  moist  mash  system  appears  as  that  by  which  an  ex- 
pert in  feeding  gets  the  biggest  actual  results.  Whether 
it  will  pay  him  to  use  the  system  that  gives  those  results 
depends  upon  the  purpose  for  which  he  keeps  poultry, 
and  upon  whether  he  can  feed  on  this  system  and  still 
handle  other  parts  of  his  work  promptly  as  required. 

Combining  Wet  and  Dry  Mash  Systems 

When  dry  mash  feeding  was  first  introduced  and  its 
merits  became  widely  known,  there  was  a  general  ten- 
dency to  discard  moist  mashes  entirely.  Only  a  relatively 
small  number  of  the  poultry  keepers  who  were  getting 
good  results  from  moist  mash  feeding  held  to  that  prac- 
tice continuously  and  exclusively.  The  first  results  of 
heavy  feeding  of  dry  mashes  containing  much  meat  mat- 
ter and  other  high  concentrates  were  often  so  remarkably 
good  that  poultry  keepers  who  had  successfully  used  the 
other  system  for  years  were  tempted  to  discard  it.  Both 
experienced  and  inexperienced  poultry  keepers  too,  being 
advised  of  the  fact  that  in  dry  mash  feeding  much  larger 
amounts  of  animal  matter  could  be  used  with  immediate 
good  results,  adopted  the  practice  of  adding  more  of 
such  materials  to  commercial  mixtures  which  already 
had  about  all  of  those  ingredients  that  the  manufacturers 
considered  safe  to  put  in  them. 


GRAIN    AiMD     JViAoH    tiurftiii.     FOR    INDOOR    AND    OUT- 
DOOR  USE 


PRINCIPLES.  METHODS  AND  SYSTEMS  OF  FEEDING 


35 


The  effect  of  such  feeding  was  remarkable  growth  or 
egg  production  as  long  as  the  digestive  organs  could 
stand  this  extraordinary  rich  diet,  and  then  sudden  col- 
lapse. Poultrymen  would  have  large  stocks  of  chicks 
coming  on  remarkably  well  for  three  or  four  months, 
then  they  suddenly  would  begin  to  drop  off  in  large  num- 
bers, and  within  a  short  time  all  would  be  gone  except 
the  few  that  could  stand  this  diet,  and  even  those  would 
no  longer  show  their  former  thrift.  Where  the  use  of 
meat  concentrates  was  more  moderate,  but  still  too  heavy 
for  continuous  feeding,  the  effects  were  not  so  striking  or 
so  sudden,  but  showed  in  an  unusual 
proportion  of  losses  from  digestive 
troubles.  Such  experiences  led  some 
poultrymen  to  go  back  to  their  old 
system  of  moist  mash  feeding,  but  the 
greater  number  gradually  saw  the  ad- 
vantage of  combining  the  two  sys- 
tems, making  for  each  case  such  an 
intermediate  system  as  would  best 
meet  its  requirements. 

The  most  important  general  modi- 
fication of  the  dry  mash  system  was 
to  discontinue  efforts  to  compel  poul- 
try to  eat  the  amount  of  dry  mash 
necessary  to  give  them  the  quantity 
of  protein  required  to  meet  the  esti- 
mated demands  of  remarkable  growth 
or  high  egg  production.  This  was 
brought  about  by  simply  increasing 
the  whole  grain  so  that  the  birds 
could  eat  about  the  same  proportions 
of  grain  and  mash  that  they  usually 
will  when  fed  a  moist  mash;  and  giv- 
ing more  abundant  supplies  of  green 
feed — sprouted  oats  being  extensively 
used  for  this  purpose.  The  dry  mash 
system  so  modified  gives  good  results 

generally,  and  seems  to  suit  the  greater  number  of  poultry 
keepers.  It  does  not  give  the  best  results  obtainable  un- 
less the  feeding  of  sprouted  oats  is  very  liberal  (or  other 
succulent  feed  is  freely  supplied)  and  the  oats  fed  while 
the  sprouts  are  so  short  that  the  feed  is  really  a  combi- 
nation of  moist  grain  and  green  feed. 

Where  other  materials  that  would  similarly  modify 
the  ration  are  more  available  than  sprouted  oats,  the  modi- 
fications that  are  made  usually  take  the  form  of  moist 
mashes  supplementing  the  dry  mash.  In  this  combina- 
tion the  moist  mash  is  not,  as  in  old  practice,  the  basis, 
and  in  a  sense  the  key  to  the  ration,  but  is  the  convenient 
means  of  giving  the  things  necessary  to  supplement  the 
dry  feeds,  both  ground  and  whole.  The  dry  mash  system 
thus  modified  is  the  one  that  gives  the  best  results  to 
most  people,  especially  those  of  limited  experience,  and 
those  who  are  not  able  to  keep  close  watch  of  their  poul- 
try, and  to  study  carefully  all  that  relates  to  feeding. 

In  the  work  of  highly  expert  feeders  the  best  results 
are  usually  obtained  by  combinations  in  which  the  posi- 
tions of  the  two  kinds  of  mashes  are  reversed,  the  moist 
mash  remaining  a  principal  feature  in  the  ration,  and  dry 
mash  being  used  to  supplement  it  to  such  an  extent  as 
will  relieve  the  feeder  of  the  close  attention  demanded 
by  a  rigid  moist  mash  schedule,  and  will  give  the  birds 
the  opportunity  to  help  themselves  to  dry  mash  when  the 
feeder  fails  to  supply  the  other  on  time,  or  when  their 
inclination  prompts  them  to  take  it. 


Relation  of  Exercise  to  Feeding  Methods 

Poultry  at  liberty,  foraging  for  their  feed,  take  exer- 
cise walking  or  running  about,  and  scratching  or  grubbing 
for  feed — according  to  their  nature  and  structure.  Fowls 
are  energetic  scratchers  wherever  there  is  any  promise 
of  reward  for  such  effort.  Turkeys  scratch  some,  but  not 
nearly  so  much  as  fowls.  Little  chickens  begin  to  scratch 
briskly  as  soon  as  they  begin  to  try  to  pick  up  feed.  The 
beak  and  the  legs  seem  to  have  a  tendency  to  work  in 
harmony.  Waterfowl  do  not  scratch,  but  find  what  feed 
they  get  from  below  the  surface  of  the  ground  by  rooting 


OUTDOOR    FEED    HOPPER    WITH    THREE    COMPARTMENTS 
Photo  from  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 


and  grubbing  with  their  strong  bills.  It  is  this  exercise 
that  makes  the  muscles  of  their  necks  so  strong  while 
their  legs  are  weak  as  compared  with  those  of  the  scratch- 
ers. The  necks  of  ducks  and  geese  are  so  strong  that  these 
birds  are  caught  and  carried  by  the  neck,  instead  of  by 
the  feet  as  is  customary  in  handling  fowls.  The  legs  of 
ducks  in  particular  are  so  weak  that  catching  them  by 
the  legs  is  likely  to  cause  dislocation. 

It  does  not  seem  to  make  much  difference  in  the 
health  of  a  bird  what  kind  of  exercise  it  takes,  provided 
it  gets  a  reasonable  amount;  nor  is  it  necessary  that  the 
exercise  should  be  strenuous.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  to 
the  interest  of  the  poultry  keeper  that  poultry  should 
take  no  more  exercise  than  is  actually  needed  to  keep 
them  in  good  condition  and  thrifty;  for  every  motion  a 
biid  makes  is  using  energy  that  comes  from  feed,  and  so 
whatever  energy  is  used  beyond  the  needs  of  the  bird 
for  exercise  to  keep  it  in  physical  condition,  represents  a 
waste.  The  adjustment  of  exercise  of  course  cannot  be 
accurate,  but  in  a  general  way  the  proper  relation  is  se- 
cured by  giving  a  part  of  the  feed  in  such  form  and 
under  such  conditions  that  it  is  eaten  with  little  effort, 
and  the  remainder  under  conditions  which  make  a  mod- 
erate amount  of  effort  necessary  to  obtain  it. 

With  birds  on  range  the  matter  of  exercise  does  not 
call  for  consideration  in  the  way  that  is  necessary  for 
poultry  in  confinement.  Birds  at  large  are  likely  to  take 
much  more  exercise  than  they  really  need,  and  if  they 
are  left  to  provide  mostly  for  themselves  they  may  work 


36 


HOW  TO  FEED  POULTRY  FOR  ANY  PURPOSE  WITH  PROFIT 


so  hard  for  what  they  get  that,  while  healthy  and  strong, 
they  are  neither  productive  nor  as  soft-meated  as  good 
table  poultry  should  be.  If  the  keeper  wishes  better  pro- 
duction and  better  poultry  under  these  conditions  he  can 


SCRATCHING    FOR    GRAIN    IN    LITTER — THE    BEST    INDOOR 
EXERCISE    FOR   HENS' 

obtain  his  objects  by  any  method  that  sufficiently  re- 
duces the  amount  of  exercise  the  birds  are  taking  while 
at  the  same  time  giving  them  equal  or  greater  supplies  of 
feed.  Either  reducing  the  numbers  in  flocks,  making 
more  flocks  and  placing  them  farther  apart,  or  giving  a 
little  more  feed,  or  both  these  measures  together,  will 
bring  the  results  sought. 

With  poultry  in  confinement — especially  with  fowls — 
regular  provision  for  exercise  is  necessary  if  it  is  desired 
to  keep  the  birds  in  good  condition  for  a  long  term.  With 
birds  that  are  to  be  confined  for  only  a  few  months  and 
then  killed,  provision  for  exercise  is  not  necessary  and  the 
results  for  such  a  period  may  be  better  without  it.  Thus 
in  fattening  poultry  we  prevent  exercise  that  all  feed  con- 
sumed may  go  to  fat.  Even  egg  production,  if  the  birds 
are  in  good  condition  at  the  beginning  of  confinement, 


may  be  better  without  exercise,  until  lack  of  it  begins  to 
cause  weakness  and  low  vitality. 

The  differences  in  temperament  in  different  breeds  of 
poultry,  and  to  a  less  extent  in  different  individuals  of 
the  same  breed,  also  affect  their  re- 
quirements for  supplied  exercise. 
Small  active  fowls  that  are  restless 
in  confinement  may  take  all  the  exer- 
cise necessary  to  keep  them  in  good 
condition  —  to  prevent  indigestion  — 
moving  about  the  yard  and  looking 
for  a  possible  opportunity  to  get  out. 
While  in  one  way  serviceable,  this 
form  of  exercise  is  not  altogether 
beneficial,  for  contentment  is  essen- 
tial to  the  most  profitable  production. 
However,  hens  with  this  restless  dis- 
position will  take  exercise  enough  of 
their  own  accord  to  prevent  indiges- 
tion or  the  excessive  accumulation  of 
fat.  That  is  the  reason  that  hens  of 
the  light,  active,  nervous  breeds  so 
generally  give  good  egg  yields  in  con- 
ditions where  the  heavier  breeds  give 
very  poor  ones. 

The  most  practical  way  to  provide 
exercise  for  fowls,  making  it  to  a  de- 
gree compulsory,  is  by  feeding  the 
grain  in  litter  on  the  floor  of  the 
poultry  house,  using  such  depth  of 

litter  as  is  necessary  to  conceal  a  considerable  part  of 
the  grain  as  thrown  into  it.  This  condition  is  secured  by 
using  only  a  moderate  amount  of  litter  at  the  start,  add- 
ing to  it  as-  it  becomes  broken,  and  occasionally  removing 
that  near  the  floor  which  is  finely  broken  and  more  or 
less  mixed  with  droppings  or  earth. 

Dry  leaves  make  the  best  litter  for  this  purpose,  but 
comparatively  few  poultry  keepers  can  obtain  them  in 
sufficient  quantities  to  use  constantly.  Oat  straw  and 
planer  shavings  are  the  articles  most  commonly  used  for 
scratching  litter  by  those  who  have  to  buy  it.  Dry  corn 
stalks  cut  in  lengths  -of  about  six  to  eight  inches  make 
good  scratching  litter,  rather  coarse,  but  durable  and 
wearing  for  a  long  time  without  replacing.  Any  kind  of 
straw,  hay,  weeds,  or  stalky  rubbish  that  is  not  too  coarse 
and  tough  will  answer. 


MRS.  CHAS.  V.  KEELER  FEEDING  CHICKENS'  ON  THE  FARM  RANGE  AT  "KEELERSVII.L.E", 

NEAR    WINAMAC,    INDIANA 
The    birds   are    Standard    White    Wyandottes    not    quite    five   months   old,    and   weighing  from   four   to   six   pounds   each. 


CHAPTER    IV 


Preparation  of  Feeds  For  Poultry 

Suitable  Equipment  an  Important  Factor  in  the  Several  Processes  of  Cutting,  Grinding,  Cooking  and  Mixing  Feeds 

For  Poultry   on  Any  Scale — Directions  for   Making  Raw,  Half-cooked  and  Cooked  Mashes — 

Baking  Johnnycake — Mixing  Dry   Mashes— Sprouting  Oats — Preparing  all 

Kinds    of    Kitchen    and    Garden  Waste  in  Appetizing  Forms 


A  MOIST  mash,  properly  compounded  and  used,  is 
a  highly  serviceable  feature  in  a  ration  for  poul- 
try. A  mash  of  the  same  ingredients,  improperly 
mack,  becomes  one  of  the  most  objectionable  things  in 
poultry  feeding.  The  making  of  a  good  mash  is  not  at  all 
a  difficult  matter,  yet  in  the  days  when  the  use  of  moist 
mashes  was  more  common  than  now,  probably  not  one  in 
three  of  those  who  used  them  made  mashes  that  were 
appetizing  to  the  birds,  and  would  give  the  results  de- 
sired. The  general  reason  for  this  was  CARELESSNESS. 
Most  people  who  used  mashes  learned  to  make  them 
either  by  experimenting  with  mashes  of  different  com- 
position and  mixed  in  different  ways,  or  from  instructions 
given  in  books  and  papers. 

These  instructions  were  not  always  as  explicit  as 
they  should  be.  The  most  common  description  of  the 
proper  texture  of  a  moist  mash  was  crumbly,  which  is  a 
very  indefinite  term.  While  a  properly  made  mash  is  some- 
what crumbly,  a  crumbly  mash  is  not  necessarily  well  made. 
It  is  difficult  to  put  descriptions  of  the  properties  of  such 
mixtures  into  words  that  will  always  convey  just  the  mean- 
ing desired.  In  fact  it  is  impossible  to  do  so.  The  de- 
scription that  may  give  the  right  idea  to  the  majority  of 
those  who  read  it  will  often  fail  to  do  so  for  a  consider- 
ib'e  number.  The  verbal  description  must  therefore  be  re- 
garded as  never  fully  adequate,  but  more  or  less  accur- 
ately suggestive  to  different  persons  according  to  their 
habitual  understanding  of  the  words  used,  and  always  to 
be  tested  as  to  the  correct  interpretation  of  it  by  the 


appetite  the  birds  show  for  the  mixture  made,  and  by  the 
absence  of  undesirable  effects  in  using  it. 

Suitable  Equipment  the  First  Essential 

Where  moist  mashes  are  to  be  fed  regularly  to  any 
considerable  stock  of  poultry,  or  are  to  be  used  at  all  for  a 
large  stock,  convenient  apparatus  for  cooking  and  mixing, 
and  for  handling  the  mash  in  feeding  should  be  provided. 
Much  of  the  complaint  about  the  labor  involved  in  the 
use  of  moist  and  cooked  mashes  arises  from  the  fact  that 
proper  facilities  for  such  work  are  not  provided,  and  so 
either  a  great  deal  more  time  is  used  than  is  really 
necessary,  or  the  work  is  not  done  as  it  should  be. 

Equipment  For  Mixing  a  Pail  of  Mash 

In  a  12-quart  pail,  up  to  eight  or  nine  quarts  of  moist 
mash  can  be  conveniently  mixed.  Where  mash  is  given 
as  a  full  meal,  a  quart  will  usually  feed  from  six  to  eight 
or  nine  medium-sized  hens.  A  light  bulky  mash — if  appe- 
tizing— is  eaten  in  much  larger  quantities  than  a  more 
concentrated  mash  that  is  just  as  much  relished  by  the 
fowls.  So,  according  to  the  kind  of  mash  made,  an  or- 
dinary pail  will  answer  for  mixing  the  mash  for  flocks 
up  to  about  75  birds.  In  a  16-quart  pail  about  twelve 
quarts  may  be  mixed.  That  is  about  as  far  as  we  can  go 
without  making  special  provision  for  mash  making.  When 
mash  is  mixed  in  a  pail  and  scalded,  an  ordinary  teakettle- 
ful  of  water  is  required  to  make  a  pailful.  The  mixing 
may  be  done  either  with  a  heavy  iron  cooking  spoon  or 


ADULT    STOCK    WILL    THRIVE    IN    BARE    YARDS    WHERE    OTHER    CONDITIONS    ARE    RIGHT 

This  flock  has  a  roomy  house  with  scratching  quarters  underneath,   and    the   relatively   small   yard   drains   well   away 
from    the    building-.      In    the    distance    the    young   stock    may   be    seen   on   good    grass    range. 

37 


38 


with  a  hardwood  paddle  of  convenient  size  for  stirring 
with  one  hand.  Where  both  moist  and  dry  mash  are  fed, 
(limiting  the  allowance  of  moist  mash  and  making  it  only 
a  partial  feed),  mixing  in  a  pail  may  answer  for  as  many 
as  one  hundred  and  fifty  birds.- 

For  convenience  and  for  more  satisfactory  results  in 
every  way,  it  often  will  be  found  desirable  partially  to 
mix  in  the  pail  a  larger  quantity  than  can  be  handled  in 
it  when  all  the  ingredients  are  added,  completing  the 
mixing  in  a  box  or  trough,  using  a  common  garden  spade 


OLD    FASHIONED    BRICKED-IN    SET-KETTLE 

for  the  purpose.  For  such  quantities  more  water  will  be 
required  than  can  be  heated  at  one  time  in  an  ordinary 
teakettle,  so  the  trouble  of  making  scalded  mashes  with- 
out special  equipment  increases  at  every  point  as  soon  as 
we  go  beyond  what  can  be  done  with  the  teakettle  on  the 
kitchen  stove  and  with  common  appliances.  It  is  better 
then,  as  a  rule,  either  to  mix  mashes  cold,  or  to  get 
special  ^cooking  apparatus  of  the  required  capacity. 

Small  Cooking  Apparatus 

For  cooking  feed  on  the  ordinary  small  poultry  plant 
needing  special  equipment  for  the  purpose,  either  feed 
cookers  or  iron  set-kettles  may  be  used.  The  former  are 
manufactured  and  sold  for  cooking  feed  for  all  kinds  of 
live  stock,  and  consist  simply  of  a  stove  with  a  boiler. 
The  stove  cooker  is  cheaper,  and  unless  the  poultry 
keeper  can  do  his  own  bricklaying  is  less  expensive  at 
the  outset;  but  the  bricked-in  set-kettle  is  the  more  dur- 
able, and  also  being  of  substantial  construction,  can  be 
used  for  the  whole  process  of  mixing  where  the  lighter 
cookers  on  stoves  can  only  be  used  for  cooking  or  for 
light  mixing,  as  neither  the  vessel  nor  the  stove  will  stand 
the  heavy  pressure  of  mixing  a  large  batch  of  stiff  mash 
with  tools  requiring  two  strong  hands. 

Where  the  mixing  must  be  finished  in  a  mixing  box 
on  the  floor  or  on  short  legs,  the  full  water  capacity 
of  the  cooker  may  be  used,  and  no  larger  cooker  need 
be  installed  than  is  required  to  heat  the  water  needed. 
But  where  all  the  mixing  is  to  be  done  in  the  kettle  it 
should  have  a  capacity  about  fifty  per  cent  greater  than 
the  amount  of  mash  it  is  desired  to  mix  in  it  at  one  time. 
Thus  if  we  estimate  twelve  quarts,  or  three  gallons,  of 
mash  to  every  hundred  birds  to  be  fed,  one  thousand  hens 
will  need  thirty  gallons  of  mash.  A  40-gallon  kettle 
would  serve  for  cooking  and  mixing  this  but  would  be 
rather  small  to  work  in  freely  and  rapidly,  and  the  addi- 
tional cost  of  a  50-gallon  kettle  would  soon  be  used  in 
extra  time.  The  size  somewhat  larger  than  is  actually  re- 
quired not  only  gives  more  freedom  and  rapidity  of  action 
in  ordinary  usage,  but  admits  of  mixing  much  larger 


quantities  of  feed  on  special  occasions.  It  is  always  well 
in  installing  a  set-kettle  to  put  in  as  large  a  size  as  will 
ever  be  required. 

For  mixing  feed  in  a  set-kettle  a  round-pointed,  long- 
handled  shovel  generally  is  found  most  serviceable, 
though  big  wooden  paddles  and  forks  like  those  shown  in 
the  illustration  on  this  page  also  are  much  used.  In 
mixing  in  a  kettle  with  a  long-handled  implement,  the 
edge  of  the  kettle  is  like  a  broad  fulcrum  on  which  the 
shovel  works,  shifting  up  and  down  as  it  is  moved  through 
the  mass.  This  wears  the  handle  rapidly  and  to  provide 
for  this  either  a  shovel  with  long  straps  on  the  handle 
should  be  bought,  or  the  underside  of  the  handle  should 
have  a  strip  of  iron  put  on  to  protect  the  wood  and  pre- 
vent it  from  rapidly  wearing  so  thin  that  it  will  break. 

When  a  mixing  box  or  trough  is  to  be  used  it 
should  be  large  enough  to  admit  of  the  fullest  freedom  of 
movement  in  working  over  the  mass  of  ingredients.  The 
smallest  box  that  it  is  worth  while  to  build  and  use  is 
four  feet  long,  eighteen  inches  wide  at  the  top,  whether 
made  with  straight  or  with  flaring  sides,  and  from  fifteen 
to  eighteen  inches  deep,  according  to  the  construction  of 
the  sides.  For  quick  work  with  small  batches  of  mash 
(three  to  ten  gallons),  a  trough  eighteen  to  twenty-four 
inches  wide  at  the  top,  should  have  a  depth  of  eighteen 
inches,  and  a  bottom  width  of  ten  inches,  smaller  troughs 
being  made  in  these  proportions.  Such  a  trough  will  be 
found  more  satisfactory  than  straight-sided  boxes,  for  in 
the  deep  trough,  narrow  at  the  bottom,  the  depth  of  the 
mass  being  worked  over  is  greater  than  with  the  same 
quantity  in  a  wider,  shallower  box,  and  with  the  steep,, 
sloping  sides  what  is  uppermost  falls  in  and  down  every 
time  the  implement  used  in  mixing  is  lifted  up  through 
it.  Large  troughs  of  this  construction  are  not  satisfac- 
tory because  their  greater  depth  and  wider  flare  keep  the 
man  doing  the  mixing  too  far  from  the  center  of  oper- 
ation and  the  strain  on  him  is  too  great 

For  large  batches  of  mash  to  be  mixed  by  hand 
power,  boxes  are  used  that  are  built  wide  enough  for  two 


INTERIOR  OF  COOK  ROOM 
Showing  stove,  cooker,  and  mixing  trough. 

men  to  work,  one  on  each  side,  and  long  enough  to  give 
room  to  work  the  mass  back  and  forth  from  end  to  end 
to  insure  thorough  mixing.  Such  a  box  will  be  about  five 
feet  wide,  from  eight  to  ten  feet  long,  and  a  foot  deep. 
A  box  less  than  eight  feet  in  length  will  not  give  two 
mixers  freedom  of  movement,  while  one  more  than  ten 
feet  long  takes  a  larger  batch  than  can  be  mixed  well  and 


PREPARATION  OF  FEEDS  FOR  POULTRY 


39 


quickly  by  two  men,  and  makes  an  excessive  reach  in  work- 
ing the  mass  back  and  forth.  Where  boxes  of  the  dimensions 
given  are  not  large  enough,  and  it  is  desired  or.  necessary 
to  feed  moist  mashes,  power,  mixers  should  be  installed. 
Unless,  or  until,  this  is  done  it  will  be  found  more  satis- 
factory to  mix  at  one  time  only  what  can  be  handled  in 
a  box  of  convenient  size,  and  to  shovel  each  batch  (until 
the  last),  as  mixed,  into  a  pile  in  a  convenient  place  near 
the  box  or  into  the  containers  in  which  it  is  to  be  dis- 
tributed for  feeding.  Some  poultrymen  who  mix  in  this 
way  have  a  large,  deep  box  or  bin  at  the  end  of  the  mixing 
box  so  placed  that  the  mash  can  be  conveniently  loaded 
from  it  into  wheelbarrows  or  carts. 

For  mixing  mash  in  such  boxes  as  have  just  been 
described,  square-edged  dirt  shovels  are  used,  either  with 
long  or  with  short  handles  as  may  be  preferred.  The 
length  of  shovel  handle  preferred  will  depend  both  on 
the  height  of  the  man  doing  the  work,  and  on  whether  the 
box  is  placed  directly  on  the  floor  or  raised  a  little  from  it. 

Steam  Cooking  Apparatus 

Years  ago  a  good  many  of  the  largest  poultry  plants 
that  cooked  mash  to  feed  their  adult  stock  once  a  day, 
and  to  growing  chicks  in  the  season,  and  so  used  large 
amounts,  of  soft  feed,  had  steam  cookers  of  various  capac- 
ities and  types.  The  mash  as  cooked  in  these  was  mixed 
cold,  about  like  a  rather  dry  johnnycake  batter,  and  in 
cooking  it  was  really  baked  so  that  it  c«me  out  much 
like  a  big  underdone  cake.  The  cooking  was  generally 
done  slowly.  Often  the  mass  was  put  in  a  big  steam 
jacket  kettle  late  in  the  afternoon  and  cooked  with  slow 
heat  all  night.  Of  course  not  all  who  used  these  cookers 
were  good  cooks,  and  many  fed  the  cooked  mash  in  rather 
poor  condition.  When  well  made  and  cooked  it  was 
splendid  feed,  but  the  results  of  using  it  were  not  notice- 
ably better  than  were  obtained  by  the  use  of  scalded  and 
cold-mixed  mashes,  and  cooking  on  this  scale  was  long 
since  generally  abandoned. 

Mechanical  Feed  Mixers 

There  are  mechanical  feed  mixers  suitable  for  mixing 
either  moist  or  dry  mashes  made  both  in  small  sizes  for 
hand  power,  and  in  larger  sizes  for  high  power.  Poultrymen 
also  frequently  make  homemade  contrivances  of  this  kind. 
The  use  of  these  rather  than  of  the  more  common  equipment 
described  is  generally  determined  by  and  is  in  keeping 
with  the  general  character  of  the  equipment  of  the  plant. 
There  is  not  the  same  advantage  in  the  small  mechanical 
contrivances  of  this  class  as  in  the  large  ones  operated  by 
power,  but  many  people  prefer  custom-made  to  home- 
madie  equipment  as  more  businesslike  and  giving  a  better 
appearance  and  distinctive  character  to  their  plant. 

Power  Feed  Mixers 

The  type  of  machine  most  commonly  used  where 
large  quantities  of  mash  must  be  mixed  for  poultry,  and 
especially  on  duck  farms,  is  the  baker's  dough  mixer, — 
usually  bought  secondhand  and  at  much  less  than  the 
price  of  a  new  machine.  With  such  machines  large  quan- 
tities of  feed  can  be  mixed  rapidly  and  thoroughly.  A 
half-ton  lot,  or  even  more  can  be  mixed  in  about  the 
time  it  takes  thoroughly  to  stir  up  a  pail  of  mash. 

Shelling  and  Grinding  Machinery 

To  a  large  poultry  plant  that  grows  any  considerable 
amount  of  corn,  or  the  poultry  plant  on  a  farm  using 
power  machinery  of  this  class  in  connection  with  the 
care  of  other  kinds  of  stock,  a  corn  sheller  and  a  mill  that 
can  be  adjusted  either  to  crack  or  to  grind  corn  are  very 
useful.  The  question  of  the  economy  of  purchasing  such 
machinery  depends  not  only  upon  the  supplies  to  be  put 


through  them,  and  the  cost  of  power,  but  upon  the  cost 
of  the  machine.  As  a  rule  it  is  not  good  policy  to  go 
very  far  in  the  purchase  of  this  kind  of  equipment  until 
a  business  is  well  established,  for  few  large  plants  can 
mill  much  of  the  feed  they  use,  and  the  occasional  use  of 
expensive  machinery  does  not  meet  the  cost  of  it  except 

in  a  long  term  of  years. 

« 

Hay,  Fodder  and  Root  Cutters 

Where  hay  and  forage  plants  are  grown  on  the  farm 
and  fed  either  dry  or  green,  a  machine  that  will  cut 
them  fine  is  serviceable.  Such  machines  can  be  obtained 
of  almost  any  size  desired,  and  the  smallest  are  so  in- 
expensive that  a  poultry  keeper  with  more  than  a  few 
dozen  birds  can  hardly  afford  to  be  without  one.  Some 
of  the  small  hay  cutters  will  cut  hay  almost  as  fine  as 
meal  and  do  it  quite  rapidly.  Machines  for  cutting  fod- 
der are  especially  useful  when  it  is  to  be  mixed  in  the 
mash.  Root  cutters  will  usually  pay  for  themselves  even 
if  a  large  part  of  the  roots  used  are  fed  without  cutting, 
for  they  are  not  expensive  and  it  is  often  found  con- 
venient to  use  them. 

Bone  Cutters 

Wherever  there  is  an  opportunity  to  get  green  bone 
and  meat,  in  quantities  that  make  the  trouble  of  getting 
it  worth  while,  it  pays  to  have  a  bone  cutter,  especially 
if  it  can  be  run  by  power.  Even  with  occasional  and  ir- 
regular use  a  machine  of  appropriate  size  will  pay,  for 
with  it  a  valuable  feed  can  be  prepared  which  otherwise 
is  obtainable  only  by  poultry  keepers  who  can-  buy  of 
retail  meat  markets  that  cater  to  the  demand  for  cut 
bone.  There  are  a  few  of  these  in  most  large  cities,  but 
not  many  elsewhere.  The  use  of  a  bone  cutter  is  not 
limited  to  cutting  bone.  Though  much  stronger  than  is 
necessary  for  the  purpose  it  can  be  used  for  cutting  up 
stale  bread,  crackers,  etc.,  and  even  as  a  vegetable  cutter, 
when  these  things  are  not  required  in  large  quantities. 
Many  small  poultry  keepers  use  a  bone  cutter  for  such  a 
variety  of  purposes. 

Mixing  a  Scalded  Mash  in  a  Pail 

In  making  a  scalded  mash  containing  corn  meal,  the 
point  of  first  importance  is  to  have  the  water  boiling. 
When  boiling  water  is  poured  on  meal  of  good  quality  it 
begins  to  swell  immediately  and  will  absorb  a  consider- 
able quantity  of  water  without  becoming  sloppy.  In 
starting  to  mix  such  a  mash  the  amount  of  meal  that  is 
thought  to  be  sufficient  should  be  put  in  the  pail,  and 
the  boiling  water  then  poured  over  it,  stirring  the  mass 
at  the  same  time,  and  continuing  stirring  and  adding 
water  until  all  the  meal  is  well  mixed  and  of  the  con- 
sistency that  will  sufficiently  moisten  the  other  ingredi- 
ents when  they  are  added  to  it. 

This  point  of  consistency  can  only  be  judged  by  ex- 
perience. Skill  and  judgment  in  using  just  the  right  amount 
of  water  are  acquired  through  practice.  The  desirable 
consistency  of  this  mush,  of  course,  depends  on  the  pro- 
portion of  other  things  that  are  to  be  added  to  it.  If  the 
meal  constitutes  one-fourth  or -one-third  of  the  dry  in- 
gredients of  the  mash,  it  must  be  thinner  when  the  other 
things  are  added  than  if  it  constitutes  one-half.  Also  if 
the  meal  is  of  poor  quality  and  will  not  swell  instantly 
when  wet  with  boiling  water  it  will  not  absorb  nearly  so 
much  water,  in  fact  will  not  seem  to  absorb  much  at  all, 
but  will  settle  in  the  water  much  like  sand  does.  What 
to  do  in  that  case  will  be  described  later. 

In  the  most  simple  mashes  either  bran,  or  bran  and 
middlings,  and  meat  scrap  are  added  to  the  meal.  The 
bran  and  middlings  as  purchased  may  be  separate  or  may 


40 


HOW  TO  FEED  POULTRY  FOR  ANY  PURPOSE  WITH  PROFIT 


be  mixed.  The  best  consistency  in  a  mash  is  usually  ob- 
tained when  the  bran  and  middlings  are  in  about  equal 
proportions,  but  if  the  mixture  is  to  be  half  corn  meal 
it  does  not  make  so  much  difference  if  the  coarse  light 
bran  is  somewhat  in  excess  of  the  fine  middlings  with 
their  greater  adhesive  properties. 

Whether  the  ingredients  added  to  the  meal  are  put 
in  separately  or  added  one  by  one  is  immaterial.  The 
point  in  regard  to  them  is  to  have  them  thoroughly  mixed 
with  the  scalded  meal,  and  to  have  the  resulting  mash  as 
dry  as  it  can  be  with  all  that  has  been  added  to  it  moist- 
ened. A  mush  that  seems  as  stiff  as  it  can  be  stirred  will 
take  from  two  to  three  times  the  bulk  of  the  dry  corn 
meal  in  it  to  make  this  consistency.  To  work  it  in  thor- 
oughly takes  strong  stirring,  but  does  not  take  long  if 
one  has  the  strength  of  hand  for  it,  and  acquires  the 
knack  of  working  the  mass  systematically  to  secure 
thorough  mixing  quickly.  It  can  be  done  in  a  small  frac- 
tion of  the  time  required  to  explain  it. 

While  the  proper — or  rather  the  most  desirable — con- 
sistency of  the  mash  is  attained  by  having  it  just  moist 
enough  all  through  to  hold  together  as  fed  out,  it  should 
not  be  supposed  that  there  is  peculiar  virtue  from  a  nutri- 
tive standpoint  in  this  degree  of  moisture.  A  little  more 
or  less  moisture  will  do  no  harm,  though  it  will  be  found 
that  the  birds  usually  like  the  mash  best  when  it  is  about 
as  described  above.  If  it  is  rather  wet  they  may  not  eat 
it  quite  so  well.  If  there  is  much  dry  stuff  in  it  they  may 
eat  it  regularly  enough  but  are  likely  to  scatter  and  waste 
a  great  deal  more  of  it 

In  adding  mill  stuffs  to  get  the  desired  degree  of 
dryness,  a  novice  will  often  get  in  too  much  bran,  with  the 
result  that  the  adhesiveness  of  the  mixture  is  very  slight. 
This  condition  can  be  remedied  by  adding  a  little  more 
water,  either  hot  or  cold,  and  then  stirring  in  a  little  fine 
middlings,  red  dog,  or  low-grade  flour.  It  is  a  good  plan 
to  have  some  of  one  of  these  articles  on  hand  to  use  in 
such  cases,  and  also  to  make  the  mash  a  little  richer  and 
of  different  flavor  by  way  of  change  from  time  to  time. 

If  a  mash  appears  much  too  wet  when  the  other  mill 
stuffs  have  been  added  to  the  scalded  meal  in  the  intend- 
ed proportions,  it  may  be  because  the  mush  was  made 
too  thin  or  because  of  an  unusually  large  proportion  of 
middlings  in  a  mixture  of  bran  and  middlings.  The  best 
thing  to  do  then  is  to  add  bran  or  mixed  feed — whichever 
is  being  used,  or  if  this  seems  likely  to  make  too  light 
and  bulky  a  mash,  to  put  in  more  corn  meal,  using  it 
raw.  It  will  take  up  moisture  more  readily  than  anything 
else,  though  not  to  the  same  extent  at  once  as  when  wet 
with  boiling  water. 

Mixing  a  Cold  Moist  Mash  in  Pail 

A  mash  of  the  same  ingredients  as  described  above 
may  be  mixed  cold,  and  good  consistency  obtained,  by 
suitably  limiting  the  amount  of  bran  in  it  and  using  more 
of  the  "sticky"  wheat  products,  especially  red  dog,  or  low- 
grade  flour.  This  will  mean,  in  the  first  place,  the  use  of 
more  meal.  Enough  more  must  be  used  to  make  the  bulk 
of  meal  when  wet  with  cold  water  (which  will  not  swell 
it  at  once  as  much  as  boiling  water)  nearly  as  great  as 
that  of  the  meal  required  for  a  scalded  mash  for  the  same 
number  of  hens.  It  should  not  be  quite  as  great,  because 
this  is  a  heavier  mash  than  a  scalded  mash  and  the  birds 
will  not  eat  so  much  of  it,  nor  is  it  desirable  that  they 
should  do  so. 

The  knack  in  making  the  cold  mash  is  to  get  the 
proportion  of  fine  middlings,  red  dog,  or  low-grade  flour 
that  will  hold  it  together  and  make  it  palatable  when  the 


cohesive  property  in  the  corn  meal  is  only  partly  brought 
out.  It  is  harder  to  mix  than  a  scalded  mash,  requiring 
more  strength  and  skill  in  mixing;  and  unless  one  has 
strong  hands  and  arms  he  will  find  it  much  more  satis- 
factory to  use  a  mixing  box  and  a  spade  for  batches  of 
cold-mixed  mash  in  excess  of  five  or  six  quarts.  In  fact, 
for  either  cold  or  scalded  mash  in  quantities  of  more 
than  seven  or  eight  quarts  it  will  be  found  that  the  quick- 
est and  easiest  way  is  to  use  a  mixing  box. 

Mixing  Large  Batches  of  Mash  in  Set-Kettles 

In  making  mashes  in  this  way  the  meals  used  are 
cooked  more  than  in  a  scalded  mash,  though  not  usually 
by  any  means  thoroughly  cooked.  The  amount  of  water 
required  is  placed  in  the  kettle  and  the  fire  under  it  so 
managed  as  to  have  it  nearly  burned  out  when  the  water 
comes  to  a  boil. 

If  this  is  not  done  and  there  is  a  hot  fire  that  will 
burn  some  time  longer  under  the  kettle  when  the  feed 
is  mixed,  it  will  burn  to  the  kettle,  making  mixing  more 
difficult  and  also  making  additional  work  cleaning  the 
kettle  afterwards.  On  most  plants  large  enough  to  need 
cooking  appartus  of  this  kind,  there  is  enough  old  rub- 
bish and  light  wood  of  various  kinds  to  use  in  cooking 
feed,  and  after  a  little  experience  one  learns  just  about 
how  long  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  fire  going  to  have 
it  meet  the  requirements  and  also  give  economy  and  ef- 
ficiency in  the  use  of  fuel. 

If  clover,  alfalfa,  or  cooked  vegetables  are  to  be  used 
in  the  mash,  they  should  go  in  before  the  'corn  meal. 
Alfalfa  that  has  been  cured  quite  soft  and  green  has  a 
tendency  when  fed  to  make  the  droppings  of  poultry  pasty 
and  of  a  dull  yellow  color.  This  is  prevented  by  slightly 
scalding  it.  If  when  the  water  is  boiling  what  finely  cut 
alfalfa  or  alfalfa  meal  is  to  be  used  in  the  mash  is  put 
into  it  and  well  stirred  before  the  corn  meal  is  put  in,  no 
looseness  of  droppings  will  appear.  If  vegetables  are  to 
be  fed  in  the  mash  they  must  be  either  boiled  so  that 
they  can  be  mashed  first,  or  run  through  a  root  cutter 
that  will  cut  them  fine  enough  to  mix  in  it. 

The  process  of  mixing  from  this  point,  when  vege- 
tables are  used,  or  from  the  start  without  them,  is  just 
the  same  as  when  mixing  mash  in  a  pail,  only  on  a  larger 
scale  and  with  larger  apparatus,  requiring  two  hands  and 
being  a  full-size,  man's  job,  for  to  be  done  well  and  as 
easily  as  so  large  a  batch  can  be  handled  it  must  be  done 
quickly.  Otherwise  the  heat  which  is  still  under  the  ket- 
tle and  in  the  brickwork  around  it  will  dry  the  mash  so 
fast  that  it  becomes  stiff  and  hard  to  handle,  and-  this 
difficulty  is  increased  by  the  greater  stickiness  of  the 
meal  due  to  partial  cooking. 

When  the  mash  is  mixed  in  the  morning  it  is  usu- 
ally fed  right  after  mixing.  Many  poultrymen  prefer  to 
mix  it  at  night  and  let  it  stand  in  the  kettle  until  feeding 
time  next  morning.  Handled  in  this  way  the  mash  is 
pretty  well  cooked  when  fed.  An  objection  to  leaving 
the  mash  in  the  kettle,  especially  if  the  fire  continues  to 
burn  for  some  time  after  it  is  mixed,  is  that  it  often 
burns  to  the  kettle.  The  easiest  way  to  keep  the  kettle 
always  clean  and  smooth  is  not  to  allow  mash  to  remain 
in  it  after  mixing,  but  to  take  it  out  at  once,  put  a  pail  or 
two  of  water  in,  and,  with  a  broom  kept  for  the  purpose, 
wash  the  sides  of  the  kettle  clean,  letting  the  feed 
washed  from  them  remain  in  the  water  to  which  more 
will  be  added  the  next  time  feed  is  cooked.  When  feed 
is  cooked  daily  there  will  be  no  danger  that  feed  thus  left 
will  sour,  but  whenever  there  are  to  be  longer  intervals 
between  cooking  it  is  better  to  empty  the  kettle. 


PREPARATION  OF  FEEDS  FOR  POULTRY 


Making   Large   Batches  of   Mash  in   Mixing   Boxes 

Making  a  Scalded  Mash — The  process  in  this  case 
is  the  same  as  in  the  use  of  small  mixing  boxes;  but  on 
a  larger  scale,  and  with  attention  to  a  few  points  that  do 
not  have  to  be  especially  considered  in  handling  small 
batches.  The  meal  being  scalded  in  the  vessel  on  the 
cooker  and  vegetables  (if  any  are  to  be  used)  having  been 
handled  as  in  the  preceding  case,  the  other  ingredients  of 
the  mash  are  spread  evenly  over  the  bottom  of  one  end 
«.,f  the  mixing  box,  as  a  mason  spreads  the  sand  in  a  mor- 
tar bed  before  running  his  slaked  lime  on  it.  Drawing 
the  material  a  little  high  at  the  sides  of  the  box  will  pre- 
vent the  mush  from  sticking  to  them,  and  ridging  it 
across  the  bottom  of  the  box  will  prevent  the  mush  from 
spreading  past  it.  All  this  can  be  done  with  a  few  mo- 
tions of  the  mixing  shovel. 

The  scalded  mush  being  turned  in  on  this,  the  mass 
is  mixed  with  shovels.  The  work  is  done  rapidly  and 
thoroughly  if  after  the  mash  is  about  half  mixed  it  is 


FEED    WAGON    AND    POWER    MASH    MIXER    AT    KEITH 
DUCK   RANCH,    EASTON,    MASS. 

The    mash   mixer    in    the   upper   part   of   the   picture    is    self- 
dumping-  and   empties  into   the  feed  wagon  below. 

simply  shoveled  to  the  opposite  end  of  the  box,  turning 
each  shovelful  over  as  put  down.  Shoveling  it  over  this 
way  two  or  three  times  should  be  enough.  After  one 
gets  the  knack  of  it,  this  can  be  done  quickly,  especially 
by  two  men  working  together,  one  on  each  side  of  the 
box.  In  all  mixing  of  large  batches  of  mash,  whether 
moist  or  dry,  two  men  can  do  the  work  in  about  one- 
third  of  the  time  required  for  one  man  to  do  it.  As  two 
men  usually  do  the  feeding  where  it  is  on  such  a  scale, 
there  is  no  occasion  to  let  the  services  of  the  extra  man 
in  mixing  mean  loss  of  time  in  drawing  him  from  an- 
other job  especially  for  this. 

Making  a  Cold  Mash — As  in  making  small  batches 
by  this  process,  the  corn  meal  is  wet  and  then  handled 
just  the  same  as  when  scalded,  and  the  same  attention 
must  be  given  to  the  use  of  smaller  proportions  of  bran 
and  more  of  the  finer  materials.  Where  convenient  the 
meal  may  be  wet  for  twelve  hours  or  so  before  mixing. 
This  can  be  done  either  in  pails  or  in  the  mixing  box.  A 
method  used  by  some  poultry  keepers  with  very  satisfac- 
tory results  when  a  liberal  amount  of  meat  scrap  is  used 
in  the  mash,  is  to  spread  the  scrap  on  the  bottom  of  the 
mixing  box  and  pour  on  it  as  much  water  as  it  will  ab- 
sorb when  soaked  for  about  twelve  hours  and  be  quite 


wet.  The  amount  of  water  this  material  will  take  in  this 
way  is  much  greater  than  one  who  has  never  tried  the 
plan  would  suppose,  and  is  usually  sufficient  to  saturate 
the  mill  stuffs  of  the  mash  when  they  are  added  and  the 
whole  thoroughly  mixed. 

Mixing    Moist    Mash    By    Machine 

Machine-made  mashes  are — so  far  as  the  writer's 
knowledge  goes — always  cold  mixed.  Where  machines 
are  used  it  is  mostly  necessary  to  make  a  number  of  mix- 
ings, and  to  undertake  to  scald  or  partly  cook  the  meal 
for  them  would  make  a  great  deal  more  work  and  trou- 
ble than  would  be  warranted  by  any  possible  improve- 
ment in  the  feed  as  a  result.  As  the  reader  may  infer 
from  the  emphasis  placed  on  the  importance  of  manip- 
ulation of  ingredients  to  utilize  as  fully  as  necessary  in 
each  case  the  cohesive  properties  of  the  finer  and  heavier 
ingredients  to  bind  the  coarse  and  light  material,  the 
principal  advantage  in  scalding  mashes  is  to  bring  out 
the  cohesive  property  in  meal,  especially  in  corn  meal. 
In  mixing  mash  by  hand  it  is  easier  to  get  the  consistency 
desired  with  corn  meal  that  swells  nicely  than  with  any- 
thing else.  To  get  similar  consistency  with  the  corn 
meal  only  wet  and  wheat  products  furnishing  the  binder, 
takes  much  more  power  in  mixing.  This  is  a  decided 
drawback  to  cold  mixing  by  hand,  but  a  machine  driven 
by  engine  or  motor  has  all  the  power  that  is  needed  for 
the  work — and  to  spare, — hence  where  the  machine  is 
used,  cooking  or  partial  cooking  is  superfluous. 

From  what  has  been  said  of  the  power  of  mixing 
machines,  such  as  are  used  on  large  poultry  plants,  it 
may  be  inferred  that  it  makes  no  particular  difference  in 
what  order  the  ingredients  go  into  the  mixer,  which 
usually  is  large  enough  to  mix  a  batch  requiring  a  hun- 
dred-pound bag  of  each  ingredient.  The  custom  of  start- 
ing with  the  meal  probably  is  most  widely  followed, 
much  as  a  matter  of  habit.  In  mixing  on  this  scale  the 
mixer,  which  is  a  large  heavy  machine  requiring  a  firm 
foundation,  is  usually  on  a  cement  floor  on  the  ground 
floor,  or  basement,  and  the  feed  is  stored  in  a  room  over 
it,  with  an  opening  in  the  floor  just  over  the  mixer  so 
that  the  ingredients  can  easily  be  poured  directly  into  it. 
Three  men  are  usually  required  to  operate  such  a 
mixer  to  advantage, — one  in  the  feed  room,  one  at  the 
mixer  to  put  in  the  water  and  to  dump  the  batch  when 
mixed,  and  a  third  to  take  away  the  mash  as  turned  out 
on  the  floor,  either  shoveling  it  into  pails  or  boxes  in 
which  it  is  to  be  distributed,  or  into  piles  out  of  the 
way.  The  water  is  sometimes  put  in  with  a  hose,  some- 
times by  the  pailful  from  barrels  of  water  at  hand.  This 
last  admits  of  exact  measurement  of  the  water  to  be 
used,  but  some  men  become  so  expert  in  judging  with- 
out measuring  that  they  use  the  hose  letting  the  water 
run  as  the  grains  are  poured  in  and  shutting  it  off  when 
the  appearance  of  the  mash  indicates  that  enough  has 
been  used  to  give  the  desired  consistency. 

When  cut  green  feed  is  mixed  with  mash  in  making 
it  on  this  scale,  a  fourth  man  may  be  used  to  cut  it  and 
bring  to  the  mixer  as  required.  The  time  consumed  in 
mixing  a  batch  of  mash  in  this  way  is  usually  about  five 
minutes.  These  big  mixers  are  used  principally  on  duck 
plants.  When  the  subject  of  feeding  ducks  is  considered 
in  detail  the  reader  wiH  see  that  even  with  this  quick 
work  quite  a  little  time  must  be  given  every  day  to  the 
mixing  of  feed  on  a  large  duck  farm. 

General   Notes   on   Making   Moist   Mashes 
To    make    the    description    of   methods    under    differ- 
ent conditions  as   connected  as  possible,  we  have  in  the 
foregoing  pages  kept  closely  to  the  plainest  mashes  that 


42 


can  be  made,  and  to  mashes  mixed  with  water.  Under 
this  heading  will  be  considered  topically  the  points  re- 
lating to  the  use  of  other  materials. 

Milk  in  any  liquid  form  obtainable,  or  whey,  may 
be  used  instead  of  water  in  making  mashes.  Sweet  skim 
milk  will  bind  the  mill  stuffs  better  than  water,  but  with 
sour  milk  and  whey  no  difference  will  be  observed.  When 
milk  is  heated  it  is  generally  desirable  to  avoid  scalding 
it  to  an  extent  that  will  make  it  constipating.  The  ex- 
ception is  that  when  the  mash  mixed  with  it  is  to  be  fed 
to  birds  that  are  a  little  inclined  to  looseness,  the  scald- 
ed milk  in  the  mash  may  be  a  corrective  for  this.  Dry 
milk  products  can  be  handled  in  mash  making  in  the 
same  way  as  meat  scrap. 

Clabber  milk  and  the  commercial  semisolid  butter- 
milk are  always  best  used  cold,  and  are  especially  good  for 
both  milk  and  bran  mashes,  which  are  most  excellent  for 
feeding  in  hot  summer  weather,  also  for  heavier  mashes 
of  milk  and  corn  meal — sometimes  with  meat  scrap 
added — that  are  good  both  for  fattening  and  as  occa- 
sional rich  feeds  for  variety. 

Oat  Products  in  Mashes — Whenever  good  ground 
oats,  rolled  oats  at  feed  prices,  or  any  substantial  oat 
product  can  be  obtained,  it  is  a  good  idea  to  substitute 
the  oat  product  for  about  half  the  corn  meal  commonly 
used  in  making  mashes  as  described  in  preceding  para- 
graphs. The  combination  of  oats  and  corn,  especially 
when  they  are  coarsely  ground  together,  is  one  of  the 
most  appetizing  and  useful  mashes, — a  little  rich  for 
general  regular  use,  but  most  excellent  wherever  a  rather 
concentrated,  highly  nutritious  mash  is  wanted.  Ground 
oats  alone  do  not  swell  as  much  and  as  quickly  as  the 
best  corn  meal,  but  swell  more  than  inferior  corn  meal. 
With  good  meal  the  mixture  swells  well,  with  poor  meal 
the  oats  in  combination  give  a  better  result.  These 
statements  refer  to  ground  oats  in  which  the  hull  is  not 
present  in  excessive  amount. 

Soft  Fruits  and  Vegetables  in  Mashes — Tomatoes 
and  pears,  peaches,  plums,  and  occasionally  soft  varieties 
of  apples  are  often  available  for  small  flocks  of  poultry 
in  quantities  far  greater  than  can  be  used  to  advantage 
if  fed  separately  to  birds  that  get  some  soft  mash  besides. 
A  good  plan  in  such  cases  is  to  mix  the  mash  with  the  fruit 
or  vegetable,  and  also  allow  the  birds  all  they  will  eat  of 
it  separately.  The  mash  is  made  by  crushing  the  fruit 
or  vegetable  to  a  pulp  and  then  mixing  the  mill  stuffs  with 
it,  using  them  in  any  proportions  desired.  For  mashing 
such  articles  in  larger  quantities  than  can  be  mashed  and 
mixed  in  an  ordinary  pail,  a  tub  made  by  cutting  a  keg 
of  convenient  size  in  two  may  be  used,  or  if  none  such 
is  available  a  common  pail  will  do,  though  ordinary  light 
pails  of  either  metal  or  wood  will  not  stand  much  of  this 
treatment  without  breaking  the  bottom.  A  wooden  pail 
may  have  the  bottom  reinforced  by  attaching  a  round 
piece  of  suitable  thickness  to  the  underside  with  screws. 
A  metal  pail  that  is  strong  and  has  a  perfectly  flat  bot- 
tom may  be  used  without  damaging  it,  but  a  pail  with 
the  bottom  creased,  or  with  the  sides  extending  below 
it  ought  not  to  be  used  in  this  way. 

The  mashing  may  be  done  with  any  heavy  wooden 
implement  of  suitable  form  and  size.  For  occasional  use 
or  for  small  quantities,  a  pick  handle  makes  a  good 
masher.  If,  however,  there  is  frequent  occasion  to  use 
one,  it  is  worth  while  to  make  one  with  a  broader  mashing 
surface.  A  section  of  a  round  stick  of  cordwood,  from 
eight  to  twelve  inches  long,  and  four  to  five  inches  in 
diameter,  with  a  hole  bored  in  the  center  of  one  end,  and 
a  broom  handle,  or  round  piece  of  wood  of  about  that 


size  driven  into  it  for  a  handle  makes  a  good  masher  for 
this  purpose. 

Table  Scraps  in  Mashes — For  feeding  to  poultry  it  is 
nearly  always  better  to  mix  a  little  bran  and  meal  with 
table  scraps,  as  saved  for  the  purp.ose,  than  to  give  the 
scraps  alone.  The  dry  mill  stuffs  take  up  the  moisture  in 
the  scraps,  of  which  there  is  sometimes  a  considerable 
amount,  and  as  these  are  leavings  of  gravies,  soups,  cereals 
with  milk,  puddings,  etc.,  the  nutritive  matter  in  them  is 
all  saved  when  they  are  mixed  in  a  mash,  while  if  simply 
put  in  a  trough  these  soft  and  more  or  less  fluid  things 
are  not  always  eaten  clean,  and  the  frequent  feeding  of 
them  in  this  form  results  in  very  dirty  troughs.  Where 
the  flock  of  poultry  is  small  and  the  scraps  mixed  in  a 
mash  make  more  than  is  required,  it  will  often  be  found 
that  by  simply  taking  care  to  keep  out  of  the  vessel  in 
which  the  scraps  are  collected,  the  fluids  that  have  no 
special  value  (and  might  as  well  go  down  the  sink  drain), 
the  moisture  in  the  scraps  is  reduced  so  much  that  the 
appropriate  amount  of  meals  with  them  does  not  make 
more  mash  than  is  needed. 

In  the  use  of  table  scraps  for  poultry,  and  also  when 
feeding  meat  trimmings,  as  when  hogs  are  butchered  on 
the  farm,  care  should  be  taken  not  to  give  the  birds  op- 
portunity to  swallow  large  pieces  of  fat  meat.  A  fowl 
can  swallow  quite  a  large  strip  of  fat  as  it  is  often  cut 
from  a  piece  of  meat  at  the  table  by. a  person  who  does 
not  eat  fat,  or  trimmed  from  the  raw  meat  by  the  cook 
before  cooking,  and  fowls  are  quite  fond  of  a  little  fat, 
and  quickly  pounce  on  any  they  find  in  their  feed. 

It  is  probable  that  large  pieces  of  fat  often  are  swal- 
lowed in  this  way 
and  do  no  injury; 
but  it  is  also  cer- 
tain that  in  a  great 
many  i  n  s  t  a  n  ces 
fowls  known  to 
have  swallowed 
large  pieces  of  far, 
or  to  have  had  the 
opportunity  to  eat 
freely  of  fat,  have 
died  shortly  after 
with  acute  symp- 
toms of  poisoning. 
For  that  reason, 
either  instructions 
should  be  given  to 
those  saving 
scraps  for  poultry 
not  to  put  such 
pieces  of  fat  with 
the  rest,  or  the 
person  doing  the 
feeding  should  al- 
ways be  on  the 
lookout  for  them, 
and  cut  them  up 
before  feeding.  If 
this  is  done  no 
one  bird  can  get 
enough  to  injure 
it,  and  what  each  gets  will  be  a  benefit  to  it. 

Infertile  Eggs  in  Mashes — When  eggs  are  available 
to  feed  to  young  poultry  the  best  way  to  use  them  is  to 
break  shell  and  all,  and  stir  with  them  as  much  meal  or 
mixed  mill  stuffs  as  the  egg  will  moisten. 


HOMEMADE    OAT    SPROUTER 


PREPARATION  OF  FEEDS  FOR  POULTRY 


43 


"Making  Sprouted  Oats 

Sprouted  oats,  while  not  the  first  choice  of  green  feed 
lor  poultry,  are  probably  used  by  more  poultry  keepers 
than  anything  else,  because  they  can  practically  always 
be  produced,  in  any  quantity  desired,  in  a  few  days.  All 
that  is  necessary  is  to  keep  them  moist  and  at  a  temper- 
ate degree  of  heat.  They  may  be  sprouted  in  small 
quantities  in  a  box  in  the  house  or  cellar  in  winter,  or  in 
any  convenient  spot  on  the  ground  outdoors  in  spring 
and  summer.  Where  they  are  to  be  used  regularly  for  any 
considerable  period,  it  is  advisable  to  make  systematic  ar- 
rangements for  a  continuous  supply.  This  is  easy  out- 
d^ors  in  summer.  All  that  is  necessary  is  to  have  a  regu- 
lar succession  of  plots  of  oats  spread  about  an  inch  thick 
on  the  ground  and  kept  wet, — each  plot  being  of  such 
size  as  is  required  to  furnish  the  oats  needed  for  the 
number  of  days  intervening  between  the  times  of  starting 
plots.  Where  a  great  deal  is  used,  the  intervals  may  be 
daily.  Usually  it  is  not  best  to  have  them  longer  than 
three  or  four  days,  which  admits  of  beginning  to  feed 
from  a  plot  when  the  green  sprouts  are  of  fair  length, 
and  finishing  it  before  they  become  too  long,  and  the  nu- 
triment in  the  grain  has  all  gone  to  stem  and  root. 

It  should  be  kept  in  mind  in  preparing  and  using 
sprouted  oats,  that  the  greatest  value  is  not  in  their  use 
as  green  feed  only,  but  in  their  use  as  a  combination  of 
soft  grain  and  green  feed.  In  careful  practical  observa- 
tions on  the  feeding  value  of  sprouted  oats  at  different 
stages,  one  of  the  largest  farrxs  in  America  found  that  the 
most  economical  way  to  use  them  is  to  feed  when  the 
sprouts  are  about  ar  inch  long.  When  it  is  more  important 
that  they  should  provide  green  feed  than  that  they  should 
give  the  greatest  possible  nutritive  value  from  the  grain, 
they  should  not  be  fed  until  the  sprouts  are  several  inches 
long;  but  the  poultry  feeder  should  plan  to  have  larger 
quantities  to  feed  while  comparatively  short,  rather  than 
to  get  the  greatest  bulk  of  green  feed.  Another  advantage 
in  this  is  that  the  shorter  the  time  of  growth  for  the  oats 
used  the  less  trouble  there  will  be  with  the  formation  of 
molds,  which  often  are  injurious  to  poultry. 

For  sprouting  oats  indoors  the  most  common  prac- 
tice is  to  use  trays  about  24  to  30  inches  square  and  about 
2  inches  deep,  arranging  these  on  open  racks  or  in  closed 
cabinets  in  tiers  12  to  IS  inches  apart.  The  advantage  of 
the  closed  cabinet  depends  upon  the  temperature  of  the 
place  where  the  oats  are  sprouted.  It  can  be  heated  with 
a  lamp  or  otherwise,  and  more  rapid  growth  secured 
where  the  room  temperature  is  too  low  for  quick  growth. 
While  some  poultry  keepers  make  their  own  equipment 
for  sprouting  oats,  probably  a  far  greater  number  buy 
sprouters  as  made  and  sold  by  manufacturers  of  poultry 
appliances.  Poultry  keepers  who  use  a  great  deal  of 
sprouted  oats  sometimes  devote  a  good-sized  building  to 
the  purpose,  not  placing  the  oats  in  many  tiers  as  in  the 
small  racks  and  cabinets,  but  using  a  wide  bench  about  30 
inches  high,  and  also  the  space  under  this  on  the  floor. 
This  plan  saves  labor,  but  calls  for  more  space  and  a 
special  building  or'  a  large  room  devoted  exclusively  to 
this  work.  Usually  these  oat-sprouting  rooms  are  ar- 
ranged so  that  hot  water  or  steam  heat  can  be  used  to 
keep  the  place  at  the  desired  temperature. 

The  common  process  in  sprouting  oats  is  to  soak 
them  in  water  for  twelve  hours  or  more  before  spreading 
them  in  the  trays.  The  depth  of  the  layer  may  vary  from 
an  inch  to  about  two  inches.  Where  the  depth  is  over  an 
inch  it  is  necessary  to  stir  the  oats  daily  until  the  sprouts 
are  so  long  that  this  will  break  them  off.  In  so  thick  a 
mass  the  tendency  is  for  those  at  the  surface  to  dry  much 


faster  than  those  in  the  middle.  The  oats  are  sprinkled 
daily,  or  oftener  if  it  seems  necessary.  They  must  be 
kept  moist,  but  not  too  wet. 

The  tendency  to  the  formation  of  mold  makes  it  ad- 
visable to  wash  trays  with  a  disinfectant  before  each  lot 
of  oats  is  put  into  them.    A  solution  of  equal  parts  of  for- 
malin and  water  is  commonly  used  for  this  purpose. 
Making    Baked   Johnnycake   for   Chicks 

Johnnycake,  whether  of  corn  meal  alone,  or  made  of 
a  mixture  of  meals,  is  one  of  the  best  of  chick  feeds.  The 
trouble  of  making  it  precludes  its  use  generally  where 
chicks  are  grown  on  a  large  scale.  The  advantage  of  using 
it  is  greatest  where  the  number  of  chicks  is  so  small  that 
the  amount  of  a  moist  mash  they  can  eat  while  it  re- 
mains in  good  condition  is  not  large  enough  to  make  it 
worth  while  to  bother  with  moist  mash.  A  poultry  keeper 
who  has  a  few  broods  of  chicks  with  hens  can  bake  a 
cake  that  will  last  them  for  three  or  four  days  or  more. 
For  any  larger  number  of  chicks  bakings  can  be  made  at 
as  long  or  at  shorter  intervals,  according  to  the  size  of 
the  flock  and  the  amount  that  can  be  baked  at  one  time. 
Also  the  baking  can  be  done  when  convenient,  while  the 
mash  must  usually  be  mixed  at  stated  intervals. 

Any  woman  who  knows  how  to  make  a  Johnnycake,  or 
corn  bread,  for  the  family  table  can  make  a  good  feed 
for  little  chicks  by  the  same  recipe.  It  may  be  better  than 
is  really  necessary  for  the  chicks,  but  since  it  will  be  good 
chick  feed  there  is  no  excuse  for  one  who  can  make  it 
giving  their  little  chicks  feeds  that  are  not  giving  satis- 
factory results.  When  in  doubt  or  in  trouble  with  little 
chicks,  feed  Johnnycake;  is  good  advice  for  the  novice.  It 
may  not  be  economy  or  good  policy  to  use  it  heavily-and 
regularly,  but  it  is  the  reliable  stand-by  in  emergencies. 

Johnnycake  as  made  for  chicks  can  be  of  coarser  ma- 
terial, may  have  in  it  any  infertile  eggs  that  are  not  affect- 
ed with  rot,  and  may  also  have  any  table  scraps  that  can 
be  readily  mixed  with  the  batter.  The  following  recipes 
are  given  for  Johnnycake  for  poultry  feed: — 

No.  1 — Corn  meal,  1  quart;  infertile  eggs,  1  or  2;  baking 
soda,  1  teaspoon.  If  eggs  are  not  available  use  double 
the  quantity  of  soda.  Mix  with  sour  milk  to  a  stiff 
batter,  and  bake  well. 

No.  2 — Take  1  pint  of  corn  meal,  1  teacup  of  wheat  bran, 
1  teaspoon  of  meat  meal,  1  teaspoon  of  soda,  1  tea- 
cup of  cold  water.  Mix  thoroughly,  and  bake  2  hours. 

No.  3 — Take  3  quarts  of  corn  meal,  1  quart  of  wheat  mid- 
dlings, 1  cup  of  meat  meal.  Mix  with  water  or  skimmed 
milk  to  which  add  4  tablespoons  of  vinegar  and  2  tea- 
spoons of  soda. 

No.  4 — Add  a  little  soda  to  sour  milk — about  a  teaspoonful 
to  the  pint  of  milk.  Stir  in  coarse  corn  meal  and 
ground  oats  in  equal  parts  to  make  stiff  batter,  add  one 
infertile  egg,  broken  shell  and  all,  for  each  pint  of 
batter.  Bake  in  deep  pans  well  greased. 

No.  5 — Cornell  Johnnycake.  4  pounds  of  corn  meal,  1%  Ibs. 
(1  dozen)  of  infertile  eggs,  6  pounds  (2%  quarts)  of 
sour  milk,  5  level  teaspoons  of  baking  soda.  Stir 
thoroughly  and  bake  well. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  proportions  of  eggs  in  the 
different  recipes  vary  greatly.  This  point  is  usually  regu- 
lated by  the  available  supply  of  eggs  for  the  purpose. 
Within  these  limits  the  more  eggs  the  richer  and  lighter 
the  cake. 

Mixing   Dry   Mashes  and   Scratching   Mixtures 

Small  lots  of  dry  mash  or  of  fine  grains  may  be  mixed 
in  mechanical  mixers  of  convenient  and  appropriate  size. 
Large  batches  usually  are  mixed  with  shovels  on  a  smooth 
board  or  cement  floor.  Any  spot  swept  clean  will  do.  The 
mixing  can  be  done  with  scoop  shovels,  for  the  dry  stuffs 
are  much  easier  to  handle  and  mix  than  wet.  The  job 
should  be  thoroughly  done  in  order  that  the  mash  as  dis- 
tributed to  the  poultry  may  be  uniform  in  quality  and 
composition.  After  mixing,  the  mash  is  either  bagged 
or  put  in  bins  from  which  it  is  taken  as  required,  or  is» 
perhaps,  distributed  at  once  to  the  feeding  hoppers. 


CHAPTER     V 


Feeding  Chicks  From  Hatching  to  Weaning 

Relations  of  Vitality  in  Chicks  and  of  Conditions  of  Life  to  Results  in  Feeding — Contaminated  Soils  Bad  For  Young 

Chickens — Differences   in   Details   of   Practice  With    Hen   Brooded   and  Artificially  Brooded 

Chicks — Model   Rations    For  All    Localities  and  Climates  —  Quantities  of 

Feed   Consumed  by  Baby  Chicks 


A    BABY    CHICK   is   a    tender    little    thing,    so    sus- 
ceptible  to    extremes    of   heat   and    cold,    and    so 
easily  hurt  by  rough  handling,  that  people  natur- 
ally  suppose   that    it   requires    especially    easily    digested 
feeds.    Even  after  long  experience  with  chicks,  most  people 
do  not  fully  realize  that  the  only  necessary  differences  in 
the  feeds  of  large  fowls  and  small  chicks  are  that  the  pieces 
of  the  feeds  they  cannot  separate  with  their  beaks  must 


READY  TO  LEAVE  THE  NEST 

be  smaller  for  chicks,  and  that  the  use  of  unwholesome 
things,  even  in  small  quantities,  must  be  more  carefully 
avoided.  Nothing  that  an  old  hen  can  digest  is  too  hard 
for  a  baby  chick:  in  both,  sound  physical  condition  is  es- 
sential to  good  digestion. 

Measured  by  results,  the  digestive  power  of  healthy, 
thrifty  chicks  is  greatest  in  the  first  few  months,  and 
greater-  at  any  period  of  growth  than  in  adult  life.  A  hen 
that  weighs  about  five  pounds,  and  lays  200  eggs  in  a 
year — the  eggs  weighing  24  ounces  to  the  dozen — pro- 
duces about  five  times  the  equivalent  of  her  own  weight 
in  eggs  in  the  year.  An  average  chick  hatched  from  one 
of  these  eggs,  and  weighing  less  than  an  ounce  and  a 
half  when  hatched,  will  weigh — if  well  grown — one  pound 
when  eight  weeks  of  age.  It  will  have  increased  its 
weight  at  the  beginning  of  the  period  more  than  ten 
times.  In  a  second  period  of  eight  weeks  it  will  add  to 
its  weight  three  pounds,  increasing  its  weight  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  period  three  times,  and  making  its  total 
weight  four  pounds,  which  is  more  than  forty  times  its 
weight  when  hatched. 

When  growth  is  at  this  rate  the  average  daily  increase 
in  the  first  months  is  approximately  one-sixteenth  of  the 
weight  at  the  beginning  of  the  day.  Many  thrifty  chicks 
have  a  higher  rate  of  growth  and  continue  it  much  longer 
than  the  average.  As  a  chicken  that  is  growing  well  ap- 
proaches a  pound  in  weight  the  increase  is  often  more 
than  an  ounce  a  day.  The  real  capacity  of  a  chick  for 
growth  is  still  more  strikingly  illustrated  by  comparison 
with  large  mammals  or  with  human  beings.  A  child  that 

44 


weighed  eight  pounds  at  birth  and  grew  at  the  rate  stated 
for  chicks  would  weigh  at  sixteen  weeks,  352  pounds.  A 
calf  that  weighed  fifty  pounds  at  birth  and  grew  at  this 
rate  would  weigh  2200  pounds  when  sixteen  weeks  old. 
The  rapid  growth  of  young  poultry  is  possible  only  when 
they  are  in  good  health  and  well  fed,  and  because  they  are 
able  to  eat  and  digest  relatively  large  quantities  of  rich 
and  highly  nutritious  feed. 

As  soon  as  anything  goes  wrong  with  a  young  chicken 
in  any  other  respect,  digestion  is  immediately  impaired 
too.  The  digestive  organs,  so  powerful  when  working 
right  and  on  suitable  material,  are  peculiarly  susceptible 
to  all  the  effects  of  stale,  musty,  and  moldy  feeds,  and 
also  to  the  effects  of  eating  feeds, that  have  come  in  con- 
tact with  soil  contaminated  by  the  droppings  of  poultry, 
even  when  the  contamination  is  not  recent  and  no  traces 
of  it  may  be  visible  to  the  eye.  That  is  why  mature  poul- 
try can  be  kept  in  good  condition  and  producing  well  in 
much  more  closely  restricted  quarters  than  would  suffice 
to  grow  the  same  number  of  chickens. 

While  ideal  conditions  are  desirable  for  young 
chickens,  it  is  not  always  possible  to  have  these.  In  all 
highly  intensive  poultry  culture  there  are  various  con- 
ditions that  are  not  the  most  favorable  for  poultry,  yet 
are  not  so  detrimental  that  good  results  become  impos- 
sible. Indeed,  if  poultry  keeping  were  carried  on  only 
under  ideal  conditions,  many  successful  backyard  poultry 
keepers  would  not  be  engaged  in  it,  or  would  have  to 
curtail  greatly  their  operations.  Good  care  and  good  feed- 
ing go  a  long  way  to  offset  drawbacks  of  conditions. 
When  conditions  are  more  or  less  unsatisfactory,  good 
work  depends  upon  the  poultry  keeper  thoroughly  under- 
standing the  disadvantages  that  he  must  contend  with,  and 
taking  every  necessary  and  wise  precaution  to  counteract 
them.  Good  work  under  poor  conditions  will  often  give 


THE   FIRST  DAY   OUT 

An  old  fashioned  coop  as  still  used  on  some  farms. 
The  hen  is  tethered  to  the  coop.  The  feeding  board  is 
used  to  close  the  coop  at  night. 


FEEDING  CHICKS  EROM  HATCHING  TO  WEANING 


45 


much  better    results    than    indifferent    care  under    better 
conditions. 

In  presenting  the  subject  of  feeding  for  many  differ- 
ent conditions  and  for  different  purposes  it  is  necessary 
sometimes  strongly  to  emphasize  points  as  they  apply  to 
one  set  of  conditions  which  under  an  entirely  different 
set  of  conditions  require  but  little  attention.  The  reader 
should  therefore  always  note  carefully  to  what  circumstan- 
ces certain  emphatic  instructions  do  apply,  and  to  what  they 


COOPS   FOR   HEN   AND   CHICKS   USED   AT   THE   GOVERNMENT    POULTRY 

FARM,    BELTSVILLE,    MARYLAND 
Photo  from  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

do  not  apply.  Failing  to  do  this,  poultry  keepers  often  do 
a  great  deal  of  unnecessary  work.  This  may  not  make 
any  particular  difference  when  the  flock  is  small,  and 
when  the  work  of  caring  for  it  is  considered  recreation, 

fuut  where  poultry  keeping  is  on  a  commercial  basis  un- 
ecessary  work  is  always  to  be  avoided. 
Comfort  and  Warmth  the  First  Requirement 
The  first  point  to  consider  in  caring  for  young  chick- 
ens is  to     keep     them    comfortable.    For    them    comfort 
eans  warmth   and   dryness— especially  for  the   first  few 
days.    A  hen  that  is  hatching  a  brood  of  chicks  is  usually 
reluctant  to  leave  the   nest  from  the  time  that  the  eggs 
begin  to  pip  until  the  chicks  are  all  out,  dried  off  nicely, 
and  themselves  begin  to  explore  the  vicinity  of  the  nest. 
She  will  go  without  feed  or  drink  rather  than  move  at  this 
crisis,  and  if  she  has  been  well  fed  and  is  in  good  con- 
dition   she   appears   none   the    worse    for   a    two    or    three 
day's   fast.    She   stays   on   the   nest   and  keeps  the   chicks 
snug,  warm,  and  dry.    They  do  not  need  feed  for  from  36 
to  48  hours  after  leaving  the  egg,  as  the  yolk  of  the  egg, 
which    is    absorbed    through    the    rec- 
tum just    before    the    chick    hatches, 
furnishes  nourishment  until  the  chick 
is  able  to  get  about  well,  and  to  take 
an  interest  in  things  that  it  can  pick 
up  and  swallow. 

The  exact  period  for  which  the  yolk 
affords  sufficient  nourishment  has  not 
been  determined,  nor  is  there  really 
any  need  that  it  should  be, — nor  can 
one  see  how  it  could  be  done  even 
to  satisfy  a  natural  curiosity  on  the 
point.  We  can  learn  by  observation 
that  chicks  frequently  begin  to  pick 
up  feed  when  about  24  hours  old: 
that  they  rarely  do  under  24  hours; 
that  chicks  in  the  same  brood  will  be- 
gin to  eat  some  in  about  24  hours, 
others  not  for  36,  or  perhaps  about 
48  hours;  and  that  almost  all  chicks 


that  have  good  vitality  will  begin  to  take  feed  quite  freely 
by  the  time  they  are  two  days  old.  We  know  also  by 
observation  that  chicks  can  go  as  long  as  72  hours  after 
hatching  without  feed,  and  apparently  be  none  the  worse 
for  it;  yet  we  will  also  find  some  chicks  that  seem  to  be 
weakened  if  kept  without  feed  as  long  as  that.  It  cannot 
be  positively  said  that  the  lack  of  feed  caused  weakness 
noted,  for  these  cases  generally  occur  in  lots  of  chicks 
shipped  after  hatching,  and  all  the  circumstances  of  the 
shipment  may  not  be  known. 

However  that  may  be,  while  the 
poultry  keeper  who  is  so  situated  that 
he  has  to  take  chances  on  chicks  that 
may  be  full  three  days  old  before 
they  reach  him  and  get  their  first 
feed,  can  do  so  with  the  assurance 
that  the  risk  in  keeping  them  without 
feed  for  so  long  is  the  least  risk  in 
transportation,  this  is  a  risk  which 
need  not  be  taken  except  in  such  cir- 
cumstances. Ordinarily  there  is  no 
occasion  to  keep  them  without  feed 
so  long,  and  the  chicks  may  be  fed 
as  soon  as  they  begin  to  show  that 
they  are  looking  for  something  more 
than  warmth  and  comfort. 

It   is    frequently    said    that    chicks 
are  injured  by  feeding  too  soon.   This 

was  maintained  by  many  regarded  as  good  authority 
when  nearly  all  chicks  were  hatched  and  brooded  with 
hens.  It  is  not  now  so  strongly  held  with  regard  to  chicks 
under  natural  methods,  but  many  assert  that  too  early 
feeding  must  be  avoided  in  handling  chicks  artificially. 
The  circumstances  upon  which  this  opinion  is  based  are 
not  anywhere  set  forth  so  fully  and  clearly  as  to  show 
that  early  feeding  was  without  doubt  the  cause  of  trou- 
ble, and  it  would  be  illogical  to  admit  that  if  chicks  under 
natural  methods  are  not  injured  by  early  feeding,  artifi- 
cially hatched  and  brooded  chicks  may  be — with  all  con- 
ditions right.  But  while  taking  this  position  we  may  re- 
cognize it  as  entirely  reasonable  to  suppose  that  there 
are  many  chickens  which  as  a  result  of  wrong  temper- 
ature in  incubation,  or  in  brooding,  have  a  slight  ten- 
dency to  bowel  trouble  which  nature  takes  care  of  more 
readily  if  they  take  no  feed  into  the  system  until  at  a 
suitable  degree  of  temperature,  and  with  rest  and  quiet, 
the  organs  are  normal.  The  case  here  is  precisely  the 
same  as  when  at  any  later  period  in  life  chickens  and  fowls 
have  conditions  of  the  digestive  tract  when  they  are 


BROODER    HOUSE    USED    AT    THE    MAINE     EXPERIMENT    STATION 

The  movable  fence  is  used  only  to  confine  the  chicks  to  space 

near  the  house  while  very  small. 


46 


better  without  feed,  though  the  condition  and  appetite  of 
the  birds  being  abnormal,  they  will  eat  feed  which  is  really 
injurious  to  them. 

Chickens  that  are  noticeably  bright  and  lively  from 
the  start,  and  have  among  them  none  that  are  continually 
giving  a  plaintive  cheep,  can  generally  be  allowed  to  feed 
as  they  will  at  any  time,  and  with  entire  safety.  Those 
that  plainly  appear  less  vigorous,  and  of  which  any  con- 
siderable number  are  always  complaining,  should  not  only 
be  fed  with  more  caution  at  the  start,  but  should  have 
special  attention  in  every  other  way,  for  their  lack  of 


A   COOP    WITH    SLATTED    RUN   AND    TENT    FLY    FOR    SHADE 


vitality  may  be  in  part  due  to  a  condition  which  should 
be  and  may  easily  be  corrected.  When  there  is  anything 
wrong  with  a  lot  of  chicks,  the  poultry  keeper  ought  not 
to  accept  one  possible  cause  as  the  whole  cause  of  the 
trouble,  but  ought  to  consider  all  aspects  of  the  case  and 
assure  himself  that  every  other  condition  is  right,  before 
he  concludes  that  the  fact  that  he  fed  chicks  before  they 
were  a  certain  age  is  the  sole  cause  for  some  trouble 
which  has  developed  among  them. 

To  the  best  of  our  knowledge  the  question  of  the 
possible  effects  of  early  feeding  goes  back  to  the  question 
of  keeping  the  chicks  comfortable  at  this  stage  and  is 
closely  related  to  it.  Where  chicks  are  hatched  with  hens 
they  usually  come  on  all  right,  yet  there  are  exceptions 
to  the  rule,  due  to  the  fact  that  many  hens  are  either 
temperamentally  or  constitutionally  unfit  for  that  part  of 
the  duties  of  motherhood.  There  are  hens  that  will  not 
make  good  hatchers,  because  —  apparently  —  their  body 
temperature  is  below  normal.  While  we  might  suppose 
that  the  temperature  of  such  hens  was  still  high  enough 
for  brooding,  which  does  not  require  as  high  a  tempera- 
ture as  incubation,  the  fact  seems  to  be  that  these  low- 
temperature  hens  instead  of  imparting  vitality  to  the 
chicks  they  brood,  draw  it  from  them.  Then  there  are  hens 
which  at  hatching  time  and  while  confined  to  the  nest 
are  nervous  and  restless.  They  trample  the  chicks,  kill 
some,  and  make  the  rest  generally  uncomfortable.  Such 
disturbing  treatment  will  easily  account  for  a  little  di- 
gestive trouble.  Poultry  keepers  using  natural  methods, 
especially  those  whose  opinions  come  before  the  public 
in  any  form,  are  much  more  careful  in  selecting  mothers 
for  chicks  than  they  were  years  ago,  and  consequently 
have  less  trouble  at  this  stage. 

With  artificially  hatched  chicks,  comfort  depends  on 
the  proper  operation  of  the  incubator  at  hatching  time 
and  of  the  brooder  at  the  start.  Incubator  temperatures 
are  often  allowed  to  run  too  high;  there  is  insufficient 
ventilation  in  the  machine,  and  the  air  both  in  and 
around  it  is  too  dry.  Often  the  chicks  are  left  in  the 
machine  a  day  longer  than  they  should  be,  because  the 
brooder  is  not  ready,  or  brooder  accommodations  pro- 
vided are  insufficient  and  they  are  too  much  crowded  in 
the  brooders  while  more  brooders  are  being  made  ready. 
No  one  intends  to  let  such  things  happen,  but  they  do 
often  happen,  and  the  common  tendency  in  all  parts  of 


work  with  poultry  is  to  underrate  their  effects  upon  the 
chicks,  and  to  expect  that  what  effects  come  from  any 
wrong  condition  will  pass  almost  as  soon  as  it  is  cor- 
rected or  the  chicks  are  removed  from  its  influence.  It  is 
a  safe  rule  to  have  the  brooder,  warmed  and  ready  two 
days  before  young  chicks  are  to  be  put  into  it.  An  ex- 
perienced operator  may  delay  until  there  is  just  time  to 
warm  it  up  before  the  chicks  are  ready  for  it,  but  a 
novice  should  make  sure  that  he  has  ample  time  to  read- 
just anything  that  may  go  wrong. 

With  the  coal-burning  stove  brooders  now  widely  used, 
and  working  very  well  sometimes  in 
poorly  constructed  buildings,  such 
as  cheap  movable  houses,  it  is  espe- 
cially necessary  in  late  winter  and 
early  spring  to  have  no  open  space 
under  the  house,  and  to  have  the 
walls  at  the  back  and  on  the  end 
that  gets  the  coldest  wind  perfectly 
tight  for  two  or  three  feet  from  the 
floor.  Small  cracks  or  chinks  higher 
up  in  these  or  in  the  other  walls 
may  do  no  harm,  and  where 

the  house  is  too  small  for  the  size  of  the  stove — 
as  is  often  the  case — there  is  an  advantage  in  a  few  of 
these  small  permanent  ventilators;  but  cold  wind  under 
the  floor  is  bad  even  when  it  is  well  covered  with  sand 
and  chaff,  for  then  the  heat  thrown  to  the  floor  by  the 
stove  and  the  metal  hover,  striking  a  floor  cold  on  the 
other  side,  makes  a  strong  circulation  of  air  on  the  floor 
where  the  chicks  are.  This  book  cannot  go  fully  into 
the  details  of  brooding,  but  the  points  mentioned  above 
are  matters  which  in  the  writer's  experience  have  been 
found  such  common  causes  of  troubles  often  attributed 
to  feeding,  that  reference  to  them  here  is  appropriate. 

Another  thing  to  be  considered  before  taking  up  the 
details  of  feeding  chicks  under  different  conditions  is  the 
relation  of  the  first  culling  of  chicks  to  results  in  feeding. 
In  hatching  chicks  with  hens  there  usually  are  from  one 
to  three  chicks  in  those  hatched  from  one  hen  that  are 
plainly  poor  chicks  when  taken  from  the  nest.  Few 
broods  do  not  have  one,  and  not  many  have  more  than 
two.  Many  poultry  keepers  kill  these  chicks  when  taking 
the  chicks  from  the  nest.  Nearly  all  low  records  of  losses 
with  chicks  under  natural  conditions  come  from  lots 
where  this  first  culling  left  only  chicks  of  strong  vitality. 


FEEDING    TRAYS    FOR    DRY    MASH    WITH    WIRE 
MESH   TO   PREVENT   WASTE 


FEEDING  CHICKS  FROM  HATCHING  TO  WEANING 


47 


In  putting  out  a  brood  or  a  few  broods,  a  poultry  keeper 
who  has  noted  how  the  weaklings  eventually  drop  off  or, 
if  they  linger  through  a  season,  make  miserable-looking, 
unprofitable  birds,  thinks  nothing  of  killing  one  in  a 
hatch  of  eight  or  nine,  or  two  in  a  hatch  of  twelve  to  fif- 
teen. He  simply  forgets  them  and  does  not  reckon  them 
in  his  count  of  chicks  put  out.  But  when  it  comes  to 
proportionate  culling  in  large  numbers  of  chicks,  few  are 
willing  to  do  it.  To  take  one  weak  chick  from  ten  does 
not  seem  serious,  but  to  take  thirty  from  three  hundred 
looks  like  a  big  sacrifice — which  is  a  wrong  way  of  look- 
ing at  it,  for  the  chicks  that  come  into  the  world  con- 
spicuously inferior  to  their  companions  are  a  loss  from 
the  start,  and  the  sacrifice  is  in  keeping  them,  not  in 
killing  them.  If  kept,  the  great  majority  of  them  die  in 
the  first  three  weeks.  Meantime  they  take  up  room  which 
it  would  often  be  of  advantage  for  the  others  to  have, 
and  they  are  hosts  for  germs  of  chick  diseases  which 
would  give  their  more  vigorous  companions  no  trouble 
if  the  weaklings  did  not  distribute  them.  From  the  point 
of  view  of  good  practical  common  sense  it  is  better  for  a 
poultry  keeper  to  be  too  severe  than  too  lax  in  culling 
at  this  stage. 

Feeding  Chicks  With  Hens 

Where  chicks  are  reared  with  hens  the  easiest  way 
is  to  feed  them  the  regular  meals  given  the  adult  stock, 
and  give  any  special  chick  feeds  that  are  used  at  other 
times.  This  is  almost  necessary  if  the  hen  is  to  be  proper- 
ly nourished  and  kept  contented,  for  the  hen  will  not 
often  take  kindly  to  all  small-size  chick  feed  which,  for 
reasons  that  will  appear  in  the  discussion  of  feeding 
brooder  chicks,  must  be  used  when,  large  numbers  of 
chicks  are  kept  together.  The  hen  mother  really  requires 
as  much  consideration  and  attention  as  the  chicks,  and  it 
is  a  serious  mistake — and  also  a  common  one — to  treat 
the  hen  with  a  brood  as  a  sort  of  necessary  evil,  to  be 
tolerated  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  the  chicks  with 
heat,  but  beyond  that  to  be  quite  neglected.  Some  people 
even  go  so  far  as  to  confine  the  hen  in  a  small  coop  and 
stint  her  feed.  Few  hens  will  show  all  the  maternal  in- 
stinct the  case  requires  under  such  conditions,  many  .be- 
coming restless  and  indifferent  or  ugly  toward  their 
chicks,  and — of  course — rearing  chicks  with  hens  under 
such  conditions  is  not  very  satisfactory. 

In  general  it  is  not  desirable  to  have  chicks  that  are 
to  be  brooded  with  hens,  hatched  earlier  than  they  can 
get  out  on  the  ground.  While  they  can  be  reared  indoors 
with  the  hens,  it  is  far  more  trouble  to  handle  any  num- 
ber of  them  that  way  than  in  a  brooder.  The  advantage 
of  using  the  hen  mother  is  that  it  permits  of  distributing 
the  chicks  in  small  lots,  so  that  they  can  pick  a  great 
deal  of  their  feed,  and  at  the  same  time  relieves  the 
keeper  of  a  good  deal  of  responsibility  in  the  details  of 
care  and  feeding.  When  these  advantages  cannot  be  real- 
ized the  artificial  method  is  better.  Early  broods  with 
hens  are  mostly  broods  hatched  for  the  purpose  of  test- 
ing fertility  in  matings,  or  to  give  a  few  early  chickens 
for  the  home  table.  They  are  an  irregular  and  some- 
what rare  product,  and  for  discussion  of  systematic  meth- 
ods of  feeding  it  is  better  to  take  up  at  once  the  feeding 
of  young  chickens  when  they  can  be  put  out  of  doors. 
The  time  for  this  varies  according  to  latitude  and  sea- 
son. It  begins  in  March  in  the  South  and  may  not  come 
until  May  in  the  northernmost  states;  but  throughout 
most  of  the  country  chicks  can  get  out  on  the  ground  at 
some  time  in  April,  and  experienced  growers  try  to  plan 
to  have  as  many  as  possible  of  the  chicks  they  intend  to 
raise  for  early  layers  hatched  in  that  month. 


When  the  chicks  can  first  be  put  out  on  the  ground, 
the  weather  is  usually  alternate  short  periods  of  bright  and 
warm,  and  dull,  cold  or  wet  days,  and  the  nights  are 
generally  cold.  To  keep  them  comfortable  under  such 
conditions  the  broods  must  not  be  too  large,  and  the 
coops  must  be  quite  substantial,  and  of  such  construction 
that  they  can  be  made  snug,  or  given  good  ventilation, 
as  the  case  requires.  Nine  or  ten  chicks  are  enough  for 
one  hen  at  this  season.  The  fact  that  an  ordinary  hen 
can  take  care  of  more  than  that  while  they  are  quite 
small  should  not  mislead  a  poultry  keeper  to  give  more, 
for  the  chicks  grow  rapidly  and,  should  the  spring  be 
backward  with  cold  and  frosty  nights,  a  large  brood  may 
outgrow  the  capacity  of  the  hen  to  keep  them  thoroughly 
warm,  and  the  result  then  is  a  reduction  of  vitality  in 
some  of  the  brood.  If  there  is  much  cool  weather,  dif- 
ferent chicks  being  exposed  at  different  times,  so  many 
may  be  affected  that  the  results  are  on  the  whole  not 
as  good  as  if  the  hen  had  a  smaller  brood.  After  the 
coming  of  settled  warm  weather,  broods  may  be  much 
laiger.  Good  results  are  often  obtained  with  eighteen  or 
twenty  in  a  brood,  though  breeders  who  want  the  best 
possible  development  of  individual  chicks  usually  prefer 
not  more  than  fifteen. 

When  chicks  are  reared  with  hens  it  is  almost  in- 
variably expected  that  they  will  get  a  considerable  amount 
of  feed  by  foraging, — at  least  what  animal  feed  and  green 
feed  they  need,  and  more  or  less  seeds  and  grain.  The 
amount  they  can  get  depends  in  part  on  the  location  of 
their  coops,  and  in  part  upon  the  numbers  put  on  a  given 
area  of  land.  As  a  general  rule,  to  get  the  feeds  indicated 
in  such  quantities  that  no  other  provision  need  be  made 
for  animal  and  vegetable  feeds,  land  occupied  by  chicks 
must  not  be  stocked  so  heavily  that  the  grass  is  killed 
out  or  is  much  soiled.  In  the  early  part  of  the  season 
warm,  sheltered  locations  are  to  be  preferred;  for  the 
late  chicks  such  locations  are  usually  too  warm  on  hot 
days  and  the  air  in  the  coops  too  close  and  stifling  on 
sultry  nights'.  These  considerations  demand  different 
locations  for  early  and  late  chicks,  and  besides,  the  late 
ones  ought  never  to  be  put  on  land  that  was  occupied  by 
•early  broods  the  same  season. 

On  most  farms  that  keep  only  the  ordinary  farm 
flock  of  fowls,  there  is  no  trouble  in  finding  suitable  loca- 
tions, and  in  rotating  the  young  chicks  so  that  they  will 
not  occupy  just  the  same  spots  year  after  year.  The  coop 
can  usually  be  placed  so  that  the  chicks  are  quite  con- 
venient to  feed,  yet  can  range  quite  a  distance,  and  the 
location  changed  from  year  to  year  enough  to  avoid  soil 
contamination,  without  entirely  changing  the  range.  For 
instance,  let  us  suppose  that  on  a  certain  farm  there  is 
not  far  from  the  house  an  orchard  which  will  afford  good 
range  for  a  large  part  of  the  chicks  grown  throughout  the 
entire  season.  Up  to  weaning  time  the  chicks  will  not 
need  near  all  this  range.  Their  coops  can  at  first  be 
placed  comparatively  close  together  in  a  section  of  the 
orchard  nearest  the  house.  As  the  season  advances  and 
the  chicks  grow,  the  coops  can  be  shifted  at  intervals  and 
placed  each  time  a  little  farther  apart  until  they  occupy 
half  the  orchard,  the  birds  having  the  opportunity  to  range 
on  the  other  half.  The  soil  in  spots  where  the  coops  stand 
may  then  become  quite  foul,  but  the  soil  in  that  part  of 
the  orchard  generally  will  not,  while  that  in  the  other  half 
will  keep  clean — the  droppings  left  by  the  birds  being 
taken  up  by  the  growing  vegetation.  By  simply  shifting 
the  coops  to  this  part  of  the  orchard  in  the  following 
season,  and  managing  them  in  the  same  way,  the  condi- 
tions in  the  two  halves  of  the  orchard  are  reversed.  This 
alternation  can  be  continued  indefinitely 


48 


HOW  TO  FEED  POULTRY  FOR  ANY  PURPOSE  WITH  PROFIT 


An  orchard  makes  an  ideal  place  for  young  chickens, 
but  any  available  piece  of  land  in  grass  can  be  used  in 
the  same  way.  On  cultivated  land  on  which  other  crops 
are  growing,  coops  must  be  placed  along  the  edges  of  the 
field.  This  plan  can  also  be  used  with  mowing  lands 
while  the  chicks  are  small.  They  will  run  more  or  less 
in  the  grass,  making  paths  through  it,  treading  it  down  a 
little  in  places,  and  perhaps  keeping  it  quite  short  for  a, 
space  near  each  coop,  but  if  their  numbers  are  limited  and 
the  coops  as  far  .apart  as  they  need  to  be  for  the  chicks 
later  in  the  season,  the  damage  to  the  grass  will  be  quite 
insignificant.  The  question  of  placing  the  coops  to  get 


COOP  USED   FOR  YOUNG  CHICKENS   ON  A  RHODE 
ISLAND   FARM 

The  hen  is  kept  confined  to  the  coop,  the  window 
being  opened  just  enough  to  let  the  chicks  pass  in  and 
out.  As  the  joints  between  the  boards  are  open,  the 
ventilation  is  sufficient  in  ordinary  spring  weather. 
If  it  should  not  be,  a  small  screen  is  put  in  the  window. 
This  is  a  good  style  of  coop  to  use  after  chill  weather 
is  past,  when  it  is  desired  to  combine  several  broods 
with  one  hen. 

these  advantages  comes  up  early  in  the  season,  for  the 
poultry  keeper  must  plan  ahead.  Other  points  relating  to 
the  combination  will  be  taken  up  later. 

On  the  small  place  where  a  few  chicks  are  grown 
each  year,  and  where  the  whole  place  is  in  lawn,  garden, 
and  yards  for  the  poultry,  it  generally  is  practical  to 
place  coops  for  small  chicks  in  the  spring  where  the 
growth  of  grass  or  cultivation  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
season  keeps  the  land  fresh.  On  all  farms  where  large 
stocks  of  poultry  are  grown,  whether  by  natural  or  by 
artificial  methods,  it  is  important  to  have  the  chicks 
started  on  land  that  was  not  occupied  by  any  poultry  the 
preceding  season.  The  only  exceptions  to  this  are  sandy 
locations  where  droppings  quickly  disintegrate  and  are 
carried  by  the  rain  so  far  below  the  surface  of  the  loose 
soil  that  impurities  are  rapidly  removed,  and  slopes  where 
the  natural  drainage  is  such  that  heavy  rains  and  the 
removal  of  snow  in  the  spring  wash  them  quite  clean. 

Wherever  droppings  can  accumulate,  and  marked 
traces  of  the  droppings  left  on  the  land  one  season  are 
plainly  seen  at  the  beginning  of  the  next  season  for 
growing  chicks,  the  rule  of  putting  the  chicks  always  on 
Clean  Land — not  used  for  any  poultry  in  the  preceding 
season,  should  be  carefully  observed.  On  heavy  clay 
soils  it  is  still  better  to  have  the  land  in  .cultivation  or 
grass  for  two  seasons  between  those  in  which  it  is  heav- 
ily stocked  with  poultry. 


First  Feeds  For  Young  Chickens 

A  generation  ago  it  was  the  common  practice  to 
make  mostly  soft  feeds  for  young  chickens,  and  carefully 
to  avoid  giving  them  an  opportunity  to  pick  up  large 
grains.  They  were  allowed  little  grain  until  ten  days  to 
two  weeks  old,  and  what  was  given  them  was  usually 
either  steel-cut  pin-head  oatmeal,  or  finely  cracked  wheat, 
corn,  or  perhaps  a  little  rice,  with  all  coarse  particles  care- 
fully sifted  out.  The  soft  feeds  used  were  corn  meal  mashes, 
more  often  made  by  simply  wetting  the  corn  meal  with 
water — either  cold  or  hot — just  before  feeding,  but  oc- 
casionally scalded,  or  mixed  with  milk.  More  careful 
feeders,  anxious  to  get  the  best  results,  used  baked  john- 
nycake.  Generally  this  was  made  of  corn  meal  alone, 
but  a  good  many  persons  used  for  it  a  mixture  of  other 
mill  stuffs  with  the  corn  meal.  Stale  bread  of  all  kinds 
soaked  in  water  or  milk  and  then  squeezed  out  quite  dry 
was  also  widely  used.  Hard-boiled  eggs  chopped  fine,  and 
mixed  with  crumbs  of  dry  bread  or  crackers  were  sup- 
posed to  make  a  superior  "first  feed,"  and  though  infer- 
tile eggs  were  largely  used  up  in  this  way,  it  was  by 
no  means  uncommon  for  people  who  grew  a  few  chickens, 
and  especially  for  novices  in  growing  their  first  highly 
bred  poultry,  to  use  perfectly  good  eggs  to  feed  the  baby 
chicks.  This  was  extravagant,  but  not  so  much  so  then 
as  it  would  be  now,  for  in  those  days  eggs  were  often 
quite  cheap  in  the  spring. 

The  use  of  soft  feeds  for  baby  chicks  is  still  in  com- 
mon practice  among  chick  raisers  generally,  but  it  should 
be  clearly  understood  that  it  is  not  good  practice  to  use 
a  system  of  feeding  young  chickens  in  which  soft  feeds 
are  given  to  the  exclusion  of  the  common  hard  feeds,  or 
to  use  expensive  arficles  on  the  supposition  that  the  lit- 
tle chicks  require  delicacies,  when  less  expensive  feeds 
of  the  same  character  would  give  as  good  results. 

For  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  century  the  author  has 
given  his  chicks  reared  with  hens,  as  their  first  feed, 
whatever  happened  to  come  in  the  routine  of  the  day's 
feeding  for  all  poultry  in  the  next  feeding  after  the 
chicks  were  taken  from  the  nest, — which  might  be  at  any- 
time from  daylight  to  just  before  dark,  according  to  how 
the  chicks  were  acting,  and  to  other  demands  upon  his 
time.  On  this  principle  the  first  feed  might  be  a  com- 
mercial chick  feed,  or  baked  johnnycake,  or  the  mash 
fed  to  the  old  birds,  or  whole  wheat,  or  coarse-cracked 
corn,  or  fine-cracked  corn.  For  some  fifteen  years  his 
theory  in  regard  to  the  use  of  coarse-cracked  corn  was 
that  the  baby  chicks  would  find  in  it  as  much  fine  stuff 
as  they  wanted,  while  the  hen  would  eat  the  coarser  par- 
ticles. Then  one  spring  when  the  first  chicks  were  started 
in  his  absence  the  boy  in  charge  simply  fed  them  the 
same  as  the  hens,  except  that  more  feeds  were  given.  As 
they  started  off  well  it  was  decided  to  go  through  the 
entire  season  with  all  coarse  feeds.  This  was  done,  and 
no  difference  in  results  was  noted.  In  good,  hard  cracked 
corn  as  prepared  for  fowls,  there  are  few  particles  too 
large  for  medium-sized  young  chickens.  In  soft  corn 
that  does  not  crack  well,  but  has  many  large  uneven- 
shaped  flakes,  there  is  a  great  deal  that  they  will  leave. 

When  fine  feeds  are  used,  it  is  not  because  the  chick- 
ens cannot  take  and  digest  much  larger  pieces,  but  be- 
cause when  the  feed  is  in  large  pieces  they  can  get  a  full 
feed  too  quickly  and  with  too  little  effort.  This  is  not 
a  matter  of  prime  importance  in  rearing  them  in  small 
numbers  on  good  range,  by  the  natural  method,  but  is 
very  important — as  we  shall  see — when  large  numbers  are 
kept  together  and  brooded  artificially.  For  the  present 
purpose  the  point  to  emphasize  is  the  fact  that  small 


FEEDING  CHICKS  FROM  HATCHING  TO  WEANING 


49 


chickens  can  eat  and  do  well  on  the  same  feeds  that  are 
fed  to  mature  birds.  This  is  of  great  advantage  to  those 
who  grow  a  few  chickens  under  circumstances  that  admit 
of  this  method  of  feeding. 

A  Simple  Standard  Chick  Ration 

Morning — Moist  mash  as  fed  to  old  stock. 

Middle  of  Forenoon— Chick  feed  mixture  (preferably 
a  standard  commercial  chick  feed). 

Noon — Wheat. 

Middle  of  Afternoon — Mash — same  as  in  the  morning. 

Evening— Cracked    corn. 

In  using  this  ration  the  only  thing  supplied  espe- 
cially for  the  young  chicks  is  the  commercial  chick  feed. 
Considering  the  ration  in  detail  we  will  begin  with  the 
morning  mash.  The  composition  of  a  simple  standard 
mash  for  adult  breeding  stock  at  this  season  of  the  year 
will  be  given,  but  for  full  information  on  the  method  of 
making  moist  mashes  the  reader  should  refer  to  the  pre- 
ceding chapter. 

As  we  are  considering  the  case  of  poultry  (old  stock 
as  well  as  chicks)  on  range  where  they  get  green  feed 
and  animal  feed,  the  mash  used  will  be  an  all-grain  mash: 
1  part  of  corn  meal  to  2  parts  of  wheat  mixed  feed,  or 
bran  and  middlings  (see  page  39). 

To  a  hen  with  a  brood  of  ten  or  twelve  chicks,  as 
much  of  this  should  be  given  as  is  usually  allowed  per  hen 
in  feeding  the  adult  stock.  Most  novices  make  the  mis- 
take of  feeding  too  much  at  first,  not  realizing  what  small 
quantities  are  eaten  by  chicks  just  starting.  Supposing 
that  this  feed  is  given  between  6  and  7  o'clock  in  the 
morning,  the  chicks  will  each  eat  a  little  of  it,  but  all  to- 
gether they  will  not  eat  enough  to  make  much  difference 
in  the  hen's  allowance.  She  may  not  have  all  she  would 
eat,  but  as  she  is  now  on  a  five-meal-a-day  routine  that 
will  not  hurt  her.  The  hen  should  -be  in  a  coop  with 
slats  through  which  the  chicks  can  pass  freely.  The  feed 
should  not  be  put  on  the  ground  in  the  coop,  but  either 
on  the  ground  or  on  a  board  or  small  flat  trough  or  dish 
just  outside,  where  the  hen  can  eat  of  it  but  cannot 
scratch  it.  If  the  coop  is  on  clean  grass  there  is  no  need 
of  a  feeding  board. 

After  eating,  the  chicks  will  usually  go  under  the  hen, 
especially  on  chilly  days,  but  when  they  begin  to  get  hun- 
gry again  will  be  likely  to  run 
about,  picking  at  whatever  attracts 
them  and  eating  a  little  of  what 
they  find.  About  9  to  9:30  o'clock 
they  should  be  given  about  a  table- 
spoonful  of  commercial  chick  feed. 
This  should  also  be  put  just  outside 
the  coop.  If  the  grass  is  so  thick 
that  much  of  it  may  be  hidden  if 
scattered,  put  it  on  a  board  or  just 
in  a  little  pile.  Once  the  chickens  are 
accustomed  to  eating  it  they  will  dig 
it  out  from  among  grass  roots  when 
scattered  in  them,  but  for  the  first 
few  feeds  it  is  as  well  to  have  it 
easy  to  get  at. 

About  noon  give  what  wheat  would 
make  a  fair  allowance  for  the  hen, 
scattering  it  either  in  her  coop  or 
outside — keeping  in  mind  that  she  is 
to  eat  the  most  of  it.  In  the  middle 
of  the  afternoon  give  mash,  the  same 
as  in  the  morning,  a  little  less  if  the 


hen  does  not  seem  keen  for  it.  It  will  usually  be  found 
that  the  hen  has  a  fair  appetite  for  five  meals  a  day,  and 
allowing  her  all  she  wants  brings  her  quickly  into  laying 
condition  again.  That  is  an  objection  or  an  advantage 
according  to  how  she  is  handled.  Particulars  on  that 
point  will  be  discussed  a  little  farther  on.  Toward  dusk 
give  cracked  corn — a  fair  allowance  for  the  hen. 

For  the  first  few  days  the  chicks  take  very  little  at 
a  time.  The  amount  they  eat  of  any  meal  given  is  so 
much  less  than  most  persons  would  estimate  as  what  the 
chicks  should  have  in  addition  to  the  hen's  allowance, 
that  hardly  one  person  in  a  hundred  feeding  a  hen  with 
a  brood  fails  to  put  out  about  twice  the  feed  needed.  The 
best  working  rule  is  to  forget  that  the  chicks  require  any 
specific  amount,  and  just  feed  the  hen,  letting  the  chicks 
take  what  they  want  of  her  ration.  After  a  week  to  ten 
days  the  chicks  begin  to  take  .enough  so  that  the  feeder 
sees  that  the  hen  needs  more  than  he  has  been  giving, 
and  from  this  time  on  the  increase  necessary  for  the  grow- 
ing chicks  is  easily  determined. 

The  water  for  a  hen  and  brood  should  be  outside  the 
coop,  but  where  the  hen  can  reach  it.  Vessels  of  the 
"fountain"  type  that  the  chicks  cannot  get  into,  are  not 
as  essential  as  for  larger  lots  of  chicks,  but  are  most 
convenient.  If  open  pans  or  saucers  are  used  they  should 
be  shallow.  Then  if  the  chicks  do  get  in  them  the  down 
is  not  wet.  With  fountains,  watering  once  a  day  should 
be  enough.  With  open  vessels  the  number  of  waterings 
depends  upon  how  much  dirt  gets  into  them.  On  clean 
sod  once  a  day  may  be  enough.  It  is  not  advisable  to  give 
milk  in  open  vessels,  or  in  any  vessel  that  gives  the 
chicks  a  chance  to  smear  each  other  with  it  when  drink- 
ing. Notwithstanding  the  recommendations  sometimes 
given  for  milk  for  young  chicks,  the  writer  considers  that 
its  use  should  not  be  allowed  if  thereby  the  chicks  are 
smeared  and  the  down  made  rough  and  the  chick  uncom- 
fortable and  miserable  looking.  Some  may  suppose  that 
the  chick  is  none,  the  worse  for  that,  but  a  mussed-up  lot 
of  chicks  never  looks  thrifty,  and  it  may  reasonably  be 
doubted  that  the  milk  taken  with  this  result  contributes 
more  in  nutriment  than  is  taken  away  in  discomfort.  Milk 
should  either  be  fed  so  that  the  chicks  are  not  soiled 
with  it,  or  given  in  the  mash,  or  withheld  until  they  are 
large  enough  to  drink  it  without  as  much  soiling  as  when 
small  chicks  have  it  in  ordinary  vessels. 


METHOD   OP 


The  young  chickens 


COOPING  YOUNG  CHICKS  WITH   HENS  AT  LESTER 
TOMPKINS'    FARM,    CONCORD,    MASS. 

here  are  always  put  first  on  grass  land  on  which  no  poultry 
was  allowed  to  run  in  the  previous  year. 


50 


HOW  TO  FEED  POULTRY  FOR  ANY  PURPOSE  WITH  PROFIT 


For  small  broods  on  range  the  ration  described  above 
gives  ample  variety.  In  fact,  if  the  range  is  a  good  one, 
the  ration  could  be  of  mash  and  cracked  corn — as  far  as 
the  chicks  are  concerned — and  they  would  grow  as  well 
as  on  any  carefully  compounded  ration  that  could  be  de- 
vised for  them.  The  hen,  however,  confined  to  her  coop 
would  soon  become  very  fat.  The  coop  should  be  moved 
its  own  width  or  length  once  every  three  or  four  days, 
any  droppings  that  can  be  easily  taken  up  being  removed 
from  the  ground,  especially  if  it  is  intended  that  after  a 
few  shifts  the  coop  will  go  back  to  its  first  position  and 
make  the  circuit  a  second  time. 

With  early  chicks,  the  hen  should  always  be  confined 
to  the  coop  until  the  chicks  are  weaned.  In  no  other 
way  can  we  be  sure  that  the  hen  will  brood  the  chicks  as 
long  as  they  need  brooding.  When  a  hen  hatches  a  brood 
of  early  chicks  and  is  allowed  to  run  with  them,  and  is 
well  fed,  she  is  almost  certain  to  begin  to  lay  before  they 
are  feathered,  and  most  hens  that  begin  to  lay  when  at 
large  with  chicks  soon  drive  the  chicks  from  them  and  go 
back  to  the  old  flock.  Not  one  hen  in  a  hundred  that  is 
kept  confined  with  her  brood,  and  not  allowed  to  asso- 
ciate with  any  other  fowls  will  refuse  to  brood  them  after 
she  resumes  laying.  On  the  contrary,  though  not  so  solic- 
itous for  their  chicks  as  before,  hens  handled  this  way 
will  often  lay  almost  daily  for  weeks  and  brood  the  chick- 
ens readily  at  night,  even  if  they  refuse  to  do  so  in  the 
daytime.  With  late  broods  it  is  not  so  important  for  the 
hen  to  attend  to  brooding  when  chicks  are  three  or  four 
weeks  old.  They  may  get  along  very  well  by  themselves, 
yet  it  will  always  be  found  that,  when  the  period  of  the 
hen's  brooding  is  so  short,  her  brood  is  more  backward 
all  through  the  season  than  those  that  have  had  proper 
brooding  until  well  feathered. 

Variations  in  Feeding  Chicks  With  Hens 
The  ration  that  has  been  discussed  provides  an  al- 
ternation of  soft  and  hard  feeds.  Such  a  ration  does  not 
start  chicks  off  as  fast  as  one  of  nearly  all,  or  all  soft 
feeds,  but  it  builds  up  the  digestive  system,  and  chicks  fed 
by  this  method  can  consume  larger  quantities  of  feed  to 
advantage  and  use  more  rough  feeds  in  the  later  stages  of 
growth  than  those  which  by  heavy  feeding  of  soft  feeds 


COOP  RUN  TO  USB   WHERE   CHICKENS  MUST   BE   PROTECTED   FROM   CATS 

This  run  is  6x12  feet  on  the  ground  and  2  feet  high,  and  is  made  with  the 
sides  and  ends  hinged  so  that  it  can  be  folded  up  when  not  in  use.  That  con- 
struction works  well  while  the  hinges  are  new,  but  hinges  not  used  soon  rust 
and  become  immovable.  The  best  way  to  make  this  coop  is  with  top  and  sides 
and  ends  separate  panels  to  be  held  together  when  in  use  by  eight-penny  fine 
nails.  Only  ten  or  twelve  nails  are  needed  to  make  the  coop  stiff  enough  to 
move  about  as  desired,  and  a  coop  of  this  size  is  much  easier  to  handle  in 
separate  pieces. 


make  remarkable  growth  at  the  start.  For  stock  birdsj 
either  for  laying  or  breeding,  the  system  that  builds  up  a] 
strong  organism  with  power  in  every  function  is  the  best. 
For  growing  poultry  to  be  marketed  at  an  early  age  the! 
other  method  may  be  better. 

The  feeds  are  given  on  page  49  in  the  order  in  which 
they  are  most  commonly  fed.  It  really  makes  no  difference 
about  the  order  of  the  meals,  except  that,  in  general,  the 
chicks  will  show  the  best  appetites  for  the  feed  in  differ-  '. 
ent  forms  if  hard  and  soft  feeds  are  alternated.  If  john- 
nycake  is  used  instead  of  mash,  or  in  place  of  mash  and 
of  one  other  feed,  the  system  instead  of  including  two 
soft  and  three  hard  feeds,  would  have  three  soft  and  two 
hard  feeds.  This  would  be  more  desirable  if  commercial  ! 
chick  feeds  were  not  used,  or  if  the  cracked  corn  obtain- 
able were  at  all  inferior  in  quality.  It  should  not  be  as- 
sumed that  because  small  chicks  will  eat  and  will  do  well 
on  a  ration  that  includes  some  feeds  of  grain  as  fed  to 
adult  fowls,  the  matter  of  giving  them  things  espe- 
cially prepared  for  them  can  be  entirely  put  aside.  The 
practical  point  is  to  strike  a  happy  medium  between  the 
common  ration  for  mature  poultry,  and  the  methods  of 
chick  feeding  which  call  for  different  rations  for  the 
chicks  at  every  meal. 

For  chicks  in  confinement,  or  on  limited  range,  both 
green  feed  and  animal  feed  should  be  provided  from  the 
first.  Many  instructions  for  feeding  chicks  defer  feeding 
these  things  for  a  week  or  ten  days,  or  even  more, — giving 
the  impression  that  earlier  feeding  of  them  is  detrimental. 
Such  opinions  appear  to  have  arisen  from  the  common 
piactice  of  postponing  the  giving  of  other  than  the  "baby 
feed"  most  easily  obtained  as  long  as  it  was  possible  for 
the  chicks  to  thrive  on  a  limited  diet.  Before  oat  sprouting 
came  into  general  use,  suitable  green  feed  for  early  chicks 
was  extremely  scarce.  Poultry  keepers  used  to  grow  a 
little  lettuce,  or  sprout  a  little  grain  in  a  small  box,  to 
give  the  chicks  an  occasional  taste  of  green  feed,  but  the 
amount  so  provided  was  generally  insignificant  in  com- 
parison with  the  wants  of  the  chicks.  Green  feed  being 
so  difficult  to  get,  it  was  customary  to  put  off  feeding  it 
until  the  chicks  were  really  suffering  for  want  of  it,  and 
then  to  give  it  more  as  a  medicine  than  as  a  feed.  When 
we  put  chicks  on  good  range  in  the 
spring,  giving  them  ideal  conditions, 
the  ration  we  have  discussed  in  detail 
is  supplemented  from  the  start  by 
grass  and  other  tender  green  feed  in 
considerable  variety,  and  by  worms 
and  insects.  When  there  is  not  a 
range  for  chicks  that  affords  these 
things,  the  poultry  keeper  must  sup- 
ply them  as  fully  as  is  practical  and 
economical. 

What  is  practical  and  economical 
depends  in  part  upon  the  circum- 
stance and  the  purpose  for  which 
poultry  are  grown,  but  also  very 
much  upon  the  ingenuity  of  the  poul- 
try keeper,  and  his  ability  to  secure 
early  and  continuous  supplies  of 
green  feed  from  quite  limited  space 
outdoors,  in  the  season,  in  addition 
to  making  use  of  the  oat  sprouter  for 
the  earliest  chicks.  The  writer  has 
seen  as  good  chicks  as  were  ever 
grown  under  the  most  ideal  condi- 
tions produced  year  after  year  in 
small  bare  yards,  but  at  a  cost  in 


FEEDING  CHICKS  FROM  HATCHING  TO  WEANING 


51 


time  and  labor  far  beyond  what  was  profitable  when  the 
time  could  be  used  otherwise  at  any  ordinary  rate  of 
•compensation.  In  some  cases  this  was  judicious  for  the 
poultry  keeper  gave  only  leisure  time,  but  in  -others  in- 
terest in  the  chickens  and  the  determination  to  leave  noth- 
ing undone  that  would  contribute  to  their  perfect  develop- 
ment led  to  such  neglect  of  a  major  occupation  that  the 
net  result  was  a  steadily  diminishing  income  from  a  regu- 
lar occupation,  which  was  not  offset  by  the  better  results 
secured  from  poultry. 

While  it  is  desirable  to  give  chickens  all  possible  ad- 
vantages, it  is  useful  to  know  that  we  can  grow  good 
chicks — though  not  the  best — without  some  of  these  ad- 
vantages. Unstinted  supplies  of  green  feed  are  of  great 
benefit  to  growing  chicks,  but  when  they  are  not  to  be 
had  without  extraordinary  effort  or  expense  we  can  grow 
good  chickens  by  giving  them  just  enough  to  tone  them 
up  a  little  and  keep  the  digestive  organs  from  suffering 
the  effects  of  a  too-heavy  grain  ra- 
tion. When  this  plan  is  followed  the 
effort  should  be  to  have  small  sup- 
plies of  green  feed  daily  rather  than 
larger  amounts  at  less  frequent  inter- 
vals. The  situation  is  greatly  helped 
by  the  use  of  clover  or  alfalfa  meal 
in  mashes  for  the  chicks.  When  these 
articles  are  from  hay  that  was  cured 
green  and  are  really  of  first  rate 
quality  they  are  a  good  substitute 
for  fresh  green  stuff.  The  problem 
of  supplying  animal  feed  is  much 
simpler  for  the  prepared  meat  feeds 
are  so  highly  concentrated  that  small 
quantities  will  substitute  for  the  ani- 
mal feed  commonly  secured  on  range. 

Feeding  Chicks  in  Brooders 
In  feeding  brooder  chicks,  with 
rarely  less  than  fifty  in  a  lot,  and 
the  ordinary  small  lot  containing  a  hundred  or  more,  and 
the  broods  on  large  plants  from  two  hundred  to  five  hun- 
dred or  more,  many  things  must  be  done  quite  differently 
from  the  practices  that  will  answer  very  well  in  handling 
small  broods  with  hens. 

In  the  first  place,  the  chickens  have  no  mother  to  in 
any  way  take  an  interest  in  them,  and  are  in  such  num- 
bers that  even  when  they  have  some  range  they  quickly 
strip  it  of  all  edible  things  close  to  the  brooder — which 
range  would  supply  a  small  brood  with  feed  accessories 
for  an  indefinite  time.  So  the  large  group  of  chicks  has 
r.o  inducement  to  keep  busy  looking  for  feed  on  the  out- 
side range  near  the  brooder,  nor  does  that  land  afford 
them  the  variety  it  would  to  a  few  of  their  number.  Where 
a  small  brood  of  chicks  could  eat  a  fair  meal  of  such 
hard  grains  as  are  fed  to  older  birds,  and  then  busy 
themselves  picking  up  feed  of  various  kinds  on  their  range, 
the  large  group — if  fed  grains  that  the  chicks  can  "eat 
•quickly — will  get  little  else,  and  the  chicks,  being  naturally 
inclined  to  activity,  and  having  so  limited  a  variety  of 
feeds  in  the  large  grain,  begin  to  pick  at  anything  and 
everything  in  their  reach.  They  pick  at  each  other,  and  if 
a  chick  is  listless  and  instead  of  resenting  it  or  moving 
away  when  picked  submits  to  it  until  the  others  start  the 
blood,  they  soon  kill  it  and  develop  the  habit  of  canni- 
balism which  causes  so  much  trouble  sometimes  in  grow- 
ing chicks  in  brooders. 

If  a  chick  is  soiled  about  the  vent,  or  if  the  down 
anywhere  is  plastered  together — as  it  sometimes  is  when 
a  chick  does  not  dry  off  well  at  hatching,  or  when  they 


have  access  to  milk  or  a  soft,  sticky  mash,  or  any  sub- 
stance with  which  they  become  smeared  while  feeding  on 
it,  that  condition  seems  to  tempt  the  chicks  to  peck  at 
each  other  and  as  soon  as  blood  is  drawn  the  victim  be- 
comes a  prey  of  his  little  companions.  Brooder  chicks  will 
sometimes  eat  building  paper  when  their  coop  is  covered 
either  outside  or  inside  with  material  of  this  kind  that 
they  can  nibble  off.  In  general  this  does  them  no  harm, 
and  if  their  ration  is  a  concentrated  one  the  paper  they 
take  may  be  as  beneficial  in  diluting  it  as  the  indigestible 
fiber  in  any  of  the  common  feeds;  but  when  chicks  resort 
to  such  practices,  they  do  not  stop  with  the  destruction  of 
all  paper  within  reach.  That  of  itself  is  wasteful,  for  it 
must  be  replaced  at  considerable  cost  of  labor,  if  not  of 
material,  but  chicks  with  abnormal  appetites  and  habits 
are  subject  to  all  sorts  of  vices — cannibalism,  feather-eat- 
ing, eating  droppings,  etc. 

The  practical  way  to  prevent  these  things  is  to  keep 


WIRE   COVERED   FRAME  TO   KEEP  LARGE   FOWLS  FROM   FEED 

OF  SMALL  CHICKS 
Photograph   from  U.   S.   Bureau   of  Animal  Industry. 


the  chicks  interested  in  their  proper  feed.  This  is  done, 
almost  automatically,  by  giving  the  grain  so  finely  broken 
that  even  when  it  is  fed  in  troughs  the  chicks  have  to 
spend  a  good  deal  of  time  to  fill  their  crops  with  it.  With 
such  finely  cracked  feed  the  advantage  of  alternating  hard 
grain  and  soft  feeds  is  not  as  apparent  as  when  the  grain 
is  fed  in  coarser  form;  and  if  the  fine  feed  contains  seventy 
to  eighty  per  cent  of  one  grain — as  corn  or  wheat,  with 
the  remainder  a  variety  of  grains,  some  cracked  peas,  and 
a  little  granulated  meat  scrap,  chicks  may  be  fed  exclusive- 
ly on  this  mixture,  and  a  light  supply  of  sprouted  oats, 
for  the  first  two  or  three  weeks.  This  is  probably  as 
nearly  a  "fool-proof"  method  of  feeding  brooder  chicks 
as  can  be  devised. 

As  the  chicks  grow  larger,  and  are  able  to  forage  for 
quite  a  long  distance — after  spring  opens,  there  is  not  as 
great  need  of  giving  feed  in  form  that  will  keep  them 
busy,  and  they  are  also  more  indisposed  to  pick  up  the 
fine  particles.  Then  they  are  given  a  coarser  mixture  of 
grains,  commonly  described  as  an  intermediate  chick  feed, 
and  later  on  are  given  the  ordinary  mixtures  as  used  for 
adult  poultry.  The  ages  at  which  these  changes  are  made 
vary  somewhat  with  different  feeders.  The  list  of  rations 
to  be  given  farther  on  will  show  the  different  practices. 

When  homemade  mixtures  are  fed,  the  variety  in  the 
grains  is  usually  more  limited,  and  the  poultry  keeper 
needs  to  give  more  care  to  the  supplying  of  extras  that 
give  more  variety  to  the  ration.  The  advantages  of  giving 
some  soft  feed  will  usually  be  more  marked  when  there  is 
little  variety  in  the  mixture  of  broken  grain  fed.  Dry 


52 


HOW  TO  FEED  POULTRY  FOR  ANY  PURPOSE  WITH  PROFIT 


mashes  used  for  adult  birds  may  be  given  to  chicks,  if 
reasonably  free  from  coarse  meat  scrap  and  from  oat 
hulls.  For  novices  handling  brooder  chicks  it  is  generally 
safest  to  use  either  all  dry  feeds  or  to  have  the  soft  feeds 
well  cooked.  Dry  feeds  tend  to  correct  looseness  of  the 
bowels  which  often  results  from  chickens  becoming  too 
warm  or  too  cold,  and  which  is  likely  to  be  increased 
rather  than  diminished  by  the  feeding  of  moist  mash  as 
commonly  prepared  by  inexperienced  poultry  keepers. 
Those  who  wish  to  use  moist  mashes  for  brooder  chicks 
ought  first  to  make  themselves  proficient  in  making  moist 
mashes  that  laying  hens  will  eat  freely,  with  good  results 
in  egg  production,  and  keep  in  continuous  good  condition. 
When  one  can  do  that,  he  is  warranted  in  trying  moist 
mashes  on  his  chicks  to  secure  the  greatest  consumption 
of  feed  and  the  best  growth.  Until  he  has  demonstrated 
his  skill  with  hens  it  is  safer  to  omit  moist  mashes  and 
take  the  best  results  that  can  be  obtained  without  them. 
If  the  moist  mash  is  not  made  right  and  used  right,  the 
dry  mash  gives  the  highest  average  and  most  uniform 
results  and  the  least  loss. 

Where  chicks  are  confined  to  the  brooder  house,  or 
have  access  only  to  yards  so  small  that  they  do  no  more 
than  afford  outdoor  air  and  a  little  more  room  for  ex- 
ercise, they  should  have  feed  before  them  practically  all 
the  time.  The  number  of  times  it  is  necessary  to  give  the 
feed  depends  on  the  size  of  the  brood  and  the  arrange- 
ments for  feeding.  It  is  possible  with  small  broods  to 
arrange  so  that  feeding  and  watering  need  be  'done  only 
once  a  day.  That  plan  is  not  advised  except  for  those  who 
grow  only  a  few  chicks,  and  who  must  be  away  from 
home  much  of  the  time,  and  so  can  not  give  them  close 
attention.  It  involves  risks  of  either  shortage  of  feed  or 
waste  in  feeding  that  people  who  have  to  make  their  poul- 
try pay  do  not  habitually  take.  However,  where  it  is 
necessary  to  do  this — either  regularly  or  occasionally — 
any  method  that  places  a  sufficient  supply  of  feed  where 
the  chicks  can  get  it  will  answer. 

The  covered  feeding  pans  for  dry  mash,  with  holes 
around  the  edge  of  the  cover  through  which  the  chicks 
can  eat  the  mash;  or  troughs  (for  either  dry  mash  or 
fine-cracked  grain),  from  which  the  chicks  can  feed,  but  in 
which  their  droppings  do  not  fall  to  any  considerable 
extent;  and  fine  grain  scattered  in  litter  on  the  floor  of 
the  brooder  house,  will  provide  feed  accessible  at  all 
times.  With  a  drinking  fountain  of  the  size  required  for 
a  day's  supply  of  water,  all  that  the  chicks  need  for 
nourishment  can  be  put  in  the  house  at  one  time.  This 
of  course  could  be  done  for  a  flock  of  any  size,  but  it  is 
not  commonly  done  because  when  there  is  someone  about 
to  attend  to  the  chicks  at  intervals  through  the  day  it 
is  more  satisfactory  to  give  feed  at  several  different  times. 

Where  the  feed  will  not  lie  more  than  a  few  hours 
before  being  eaten  it  is  not  so  necessary  to  protect  it  from 
the  droppings,  for  the  greater  part  of  it  will  be  eaten 
within  a  short  time  after  it  is  given,  and  what  remains  is 
mostly  consumed  before  it  has  lain  long  enough  to  be 
much  fouled  by  contact  with  droppings  and  chickens' 
soiled  feet. -The  longer  feed  lies  exposed  to  such  contacts 
and  to  the  air,  the  less  appetizing  it  is,  and  if  the  supply 
is  liberal  (as  it  must  be  when  the  intervals  between  feed- 
ings are  long)  the  tendency  is  for  the  chicks  to  scatter 
it  if  possible,  and  to  pick  it  over  for  the  bits  of  meat  in 
it,  or — apparently — sometimes  in  search  of  something 
their  ration  lacks;  for  the  instinct  of  the  chick  seems  to 
prompt  it  to  do  this.  Exposure  and  picking  the  feed  over 
result  in  more  or  less  waste,  with  less  actual  consumption 
of  feed  than  when  it  is  given  fresh  from  three  to  five 


times  a  day.  Also  in  feeding  in  vessels  that  protect  the 
feed  from  fouling,  and  in  keeping  a  littered  floor  in  the 
right  condition  to  protect  the  feed  and  compel  a  reason- 
able amount  of  exercise,  the  time  required  for  one  feed- 
ing is  as  much  as  for  two  or  three  feedings  in  open 
troughs  or  on  a  sanded  floor,  or  in  a  light  litter. 

Then  again,  the  feeding  is  but  one  thing  for  which  a 
poultry  keeper  makes  frequent  rounds  of  his  brooders. 
The  heaters  must  have  attention  twice  daily,  and  may 
need  it  oftener.  Ventilation  of  the  house  is  likely  to  call 
for  attention  later  in  the  morning  and  earlier  in  the  eve- 
ning than  the  regular  hours  for  attending  to  heaters.  The 
potential  value  of  the  chicks  far  exceeds  their  actual 
value — though  in  the  case  of  a  large  stock  of  chicks  that 
is  considerable;  and  to  get  the  chicks  started  right  means 
much  to  the  poultry  keeper  who  depends  upon  them  for 
his  living.  Therefore,  while  they  are  small  he  considers 
it  good  policy  to  keep  such  close  watch  over  them  that 
nothing  can  be  wrong  for  more  than  a  short  time  without 
being  seen  and  put  to  rights.  Taking  this  attitude  of 
watchfulness  over  his  chicks  the  careful  poultry  keeper 
does  not  regard  five  or  even  six  feedings  a  day  merely 
as  routine  of  feeding  not  absolutely  necessary,  but  con- 
siders the  advantages  of  frequent  feedings  in  connection 
with  the  advantage  of  frequent  inspections  to  make  sure 
that  all  is  well. 

A  poultry  keeper  who  takes  this  position — and  most 
experienced  and  successful  growers  of  poultry  on  a  large 
scale  do — will  not  adopt  a  definite  schedule  of  meals 
evenly  dividing  the  day;  but  considering  all  occasions  for 
making  the  rounds  of  the  brooders  each  day,  will  ad- 
just some  of  the  feedings  to  other  necessary  routine,  and 
as  far  as  possible  combine  the  tasks  that  there  is  occa- 
sion to  do  at  nearly  the  same  time.  In  general,  the  larger 
the  broods  of  chicks  the  more  necessary  it  is  to  watch 
them  closely.  More  things  can  go  wrong  in  a  large 
brood;  there  are  more  chicks  to  "start  something"  which 
ought  to  be  stopped  before  the  whole  lot  engage  in  it. 
All  the  evils  of  chicks  massing  and  crowding  when  fright- 
ened or  chilled  increase  with  the  size  of  the  flock.  A 
poultry  keeper  who  has  had  some  disasters  that  would 
have  been  either  avoided  or  greatly  mitigated  had  he  been 
promptly  on  the  spot,  learns  to  keep  close  watch  on  every- 
thing relating  to  the  welfare  of  his  young  chickens,  and 
in  following  this  policy  he  finds  it  convenient  to  feed  at 
frequent  intervals. 

Brooder  Chicks  With  Good  Range 

The  advantages  of  close  oversight  of  chicks  in  brood- 
ers during  the  first  few  weeks  cause  most  poultry  keepers 
who  grow  large  numbers  of  chicks  to  prefer  to  have  the 
brooder  houses  quite  close  together  while  the  chicks  re- 
quire heat,  rather  than  to  attempt  to  give  the  benefit  of 
range  at  this  stage,  though  a  good  range  may  be  avail- 
able. They  consider  the  saving  in  time  in  making  each 
round  of  the  brooders  in  these  few  weeks  as  of  more  im- 
portance than  the  extra  work  in  providing  green  feed. 
There  are,  however,  many  places  where  the  number  of 
thicks  reared  each  season  can  be  handled  in  a  single 
brooder  using  a  coal  burning  heater,  or  in  a  few  such 
brooders.  When  this  is  the  case  it  may  be  entirely  prac- 
tical with  certain  easy  restrictions,  to  give  brooder  chicks 
much  the  same  advantage  of  range  that  would  be  given 
chicks  with  hens  on  the  same  land. 

Small  chicks  in  brooders  cannot  be  allowed  full 
freedom  to  wander  at  will  as  may  safely  be  done  with 
chicks  whose  hen  mothers  are  cooped;  but  after 
they  are  four  or  five  days  old  they  certainly  should 
be  allowed  the  run  of  small  yards  at  the  brooder 


FEEDING  CHICKS  FROM  HATCHING  TO  WEANING 


53 


house.  These  may  be  either  permanent  yards,  or  tem- 
porary enclosures  used  only  for  these  few  days.  If  the 
house  is  to  be  kept  always  in  the  same  location  it  is  as  well 
to  have  permanent  yards.  If  it  is  to  be  moved" -every  sea- 
son a  temporary  yard  of  movable  panels,  or  simply  of 
inch-mesh  poultry  netting  eighteen  to  twenty-four  inches 
wide,  attached  to  short  stakes  driven  into  the  ground, 
may  be  used  for  the  purpose.  All  that  is  needed  is  to  keep 
the  chicks  close  to  the  house,  where  they  can  easily  be 
driven  in  if  there  is  occasion  to  do  so,  until  they  have 
learned  to  go  to  it  for  warmth  when  they  feel  cold,  or 
for  safety  if  anything  disturbs  them.  Once  they  are 
broken  to  this  they  may  be  given  unlimited  freedom  of 
any  place  that  would  be  safe  for  chicks  with  hens. 

^Brooder  chicks  at  liberty  will  require  a  little  closer 
watching  at  first  than  chicks  with  hens,  for  without  the 
note  of  the  mother  hen  to  recall  them  when  they  get  a 
few  rods  away,  some  chicks  may  wander  so  far  from  the 
brooder  that  they  will  not  get  back  by  themselves.  For 
the  first  few  days  after  chicks  are  given  full  liberty  the 
attendant  should  keep  an  eye  on  such  stragglers.  Usually 
they  wander  off  in  small  groups,  and  when  they  get  more 
than  eight  or  ten  rods  from  the  house  he  should  drive 
them  part  way  back  to  it.  When  driven  back  a  few 
times  they  usually  will  make  their  own  way  from  any 


Grain  40$ 


Good 

Range 
Small 
Flocks 


Range 
Large 
Flocks 


Linitea 
Range 
Small 
Flocks 


Limited 
Range 
Large 
Flocks 


Bare 
Yards. 


Forage :- 


Cracked  Cora  2  pte. 
Wheat  1  pt. 


Mash  20$         Meat  15Jb  Vegetables 


|     Grass,   weej  ds,    seeds,  bugs,   worms , 
grain  and  vegetable)   wastes. 


I  Bran 


Cracked  corn  fine  Spts.i 
Cracked  wheat  3  pts.       | 
Granulated  oat  meal  3 
pts.    After  3d  week  use 
whole      wheat  and  hulled 
oats. 


Bran  3  j.  . 
Corn  Meal  5'  pts. 
Meat  or  Fislh  scraps'  I 
{      5  pte. 


Sane  as  above,   but 
add  at  first,   broken   j 
rice,  cracked  peas, 
millet,   or  a  mixture 
of  these,    1  pt. 


|       Same  as     (  above. 


I  i  I 

Same  as  above  in  who  jle  ration,   ol  r  any  goo  Id  standard 
commercial  mixed  gra,ins  and  dry  rmashes  ma|y     be  used. 
Special    care  must  be   given  to  sup  plying  gr  leen  feed  and 
animal  feed. 


DIAGRAM    SHOWING    GRAPHICALLY     WHAT    PROPORTIONS    OF    THEIR 

FEED  REQUIREMENTS  CHICKS   MAY  GET   BY   FORAGING  UNDER 

DIFFERENT   CONDITIONS,   AND   A  STATEMENT   OF   WHAT 

MUST  BE  SUPPLIED  IN  EACH  CASE  TO  MAKE 

A  COMPLETE   RATION 

Explanation — The  five  equal  rectangular  figures  represent  the  total  feed 
requirements,  which  are  the  same  for  all  cases.  The  perpendicular  dotted 
lines  divide  all  figures  alike,  proportionately  to  the  ordinary  percentages  of 
the  different  forms  of  feed  to  the  whole  ration.  The  black  portions  indi- 
cate the  proportion  of  their  requirements  which  the  chicks  may  supply  by 
foraging  under  the  conditions  specified.  In  the  appropriate  columns  in  the 
white  portions  of  the  figures  are  given  simple  model  rations,  which  with 
the  feed  obtained  by  foraging  will  make  a  well-balanced  ration.  Pt.  and  Pts. 
in  the  diagram  mean  parts  by  weight.  The  diagonals  separating  the  white 
and  black  portions  of  the  figure  are  determined  by  joining  the  highest  point 
of  supply  for  a  large  flock  under  the  same  conditions,  taken  at  the 
bottom  of  the  figure.  Thus  in  the  upper  figure:  a  very  small  flock,  on  good 
range,  might  not  need  any  feed  given  at  all.  A  large  flock  would  get  all 
the  green  feed  and  animal  feed  it  needed  (otherwise  the  range  would  not  be 
good)  but  would  have  to  have  some  grain,  and  perh'aps  a  little  dry  mash. 
A  large  flock  on  limited  range,  does  not  get  enough  In  foraging  -to  make  any 
practical  difference  in  the  ration  fed. 


distance,  but  if  occasionally  one  fails  to  do  so,  and  is 
lost,  that  should  be  accounted  only  an  ordinary  risk  of 
giving  the  chicks  freedom  and  range,  and  the  few  losses 
are  more  than  made  up  in  the  better  condition  and  thrift 
of  the  whole  flock,  and  in  the  relief  of  the  attendant  from 
some  of  the  more  troublesome  details  of  feeding.  Brooder 
chicks  in  flocks  of  two  or  three  hundred  could  be  given 
good  range  on  many  farms  without  placing  the  brooder 
house  so  far  from  the  residence  that  attendance  would  be 
inconvenient.  In  many  cases  several  such  colonies — oc- 
casionally perhaps  five  or  six  of  them,  could  be  placed  in 
a  circuit  at  no  point  far  from  the  dwelling,  yet  with  the 
chickens  ranging  mostly  on  the  area  beyond  their  houses, 
and  thus  foraging  over  a  large  area,  while  the  attendant 
in  feeding- and  caring  for  them  had  to  make  a  compara- 
tively small  circuit.  The  principal  obstacle  to  this  on  the 
ordinary  farm  is  that  the  land  and  range  most  convenient 
for  young  chickens  handled  this  way  are  commonly  monop- 
olized by  the  old  stock.  That  indeed  is  the  great  obsta- 
cle to  the  development  of  the  poultry  carrying  capacity 
of  most  general  farms.  Whenever  a  farmer  adopts  a  sys- 
tem of  poultry  keeping  that  puts  his  old  stock  on  outlying 
land  during  the  season  it  can  be  outdoors,  and  leaves  the 
inner  ranges  for  the  young  chickens  during  the  first  half 
of  the  growing  season,  transferring  most  of  them  also  to 
outlying  fields  after  they  are  about 
half  grown,  the  poultry  capacity  of 
his  farm  will  be  greatly  increased, 
and  he  will  find  poultry  one  of  the 
most  profitable  branches  of  farming. 

Special  Rations  For  Brooder  Chides 

As  stated  in  the  discussion  of  com- 
mercial poultry  feeds  in  Chapter  II, 
the  standard  brands  of  commercial 
mixed  feeds  are  increasingly  used  for 
young  chickens  because  their  quality 
is  more  reliable  than  that  of  ordinary 
supplies,  and  because  to  a  great  ex- 
tent the  manufacturers  of  these  feeds 
forestall  others  in  buying  the  miscel- 
laneous seeds  most  available  for  giv- 
ing variety  to  mixed-grain  rations. 
When  these  standard  goods  are  fresh 
and  their  original  quality  unimpaired 
they  are  usually  the  safest  feeds  to 
use  for  brooder  chicks,  and  when 
fiesh  supplies  of  these  goods  can  be 
obtained,  the  majority  of  large  grow- 
ers prefer  them  at  least  while  the 
chicks  are  small  and  confined  to  lim- 
ited areas. 

There  are,  however,  two  points  in 
connection  with  the  use  of  commer- 
cial feeds  which  make  it  advisable 
for  a  poultry  keeper  to  be  sufficiently 
familiar  with  the  composition  of  good 
homemade  rations  to  be  able  to  pre- 
pare such  from  any  material  that  may 
be  at  hand  should  .the  occasion  arise. 
Supplies  of  a  good  brand  sometimes 
fall  short,  either  from  an  extraordi- 
nary demand,  or  from  delays  in  trans- 
portation. Then  it  happens  quite  often 
that  a  local  dealer  carries  a  surplus 
over  from  one  season  to  the  next, 
and  either  from  long  holding  or  from 
storage  under  improper  conditions 
this  becomes  stale  and  injurious  to 


I  Rape, 

,   lettuce, cab- 
1   bage,    eprout- 
|   ed  cats. 


54 


HOW  TO  FEED  POULTRY  FOR  ANY  PURPOSE  WITH  PROFIT 


chickens.  A  poultiy  grower  who  finds  a  standard  com- 
mercial feed  not  giving  its  usual  good  results  often  er- 
roneously concludes  that  the  manufacturer  is  putting  out 
an  inferior  article,  when  the  only  trouble  is  that  the  par- 
ticular lot  he  has  is  stale. 

It  is  not  always  possible  in  such  cases  to  get  fresh 
supplies  at  once.  In  any  case  of  shortage  a  poultry  keeper 
should  be  able  to-  provide  without  delay  a  suitable  sub- 
stitute to  use  until  fresh  stock  of  the  commercial  feed  he 
uses  arrives.  There  are  also  many  cases  where  local  grown 
feeds  of  superior  quality  are  available  for  the  whole  or  a 
part  of  a  ration.  In  addition  to  these  cases  of  necessity, 
there  are  many  poultry  keepers  to  whom  the  details  of 
feeding  are  a  matter  of  such  interest  that  they  prefer  to 
make  their  own  feed  mixtures,  and  like  to  try  out  any 
ration  reported  as  having  given  satisfactory  results.  So 
while  the  tendency  of  the  time  is  to  an  increasing  use  of 
commeicial  feeds,  the  considerations  stated  and  the  fact 
that  actual  proficiency  in  poultry  keeping  requires  some 
familiarity  with  a  variety  of  rations,  make  formulas  for 
homemade  rations  of  geneial  interest.  The  following  se- 
lection includes  rations  used  in  all  localities  and  prac- 
tically all  desirable  combinations. 

Ration    No.    1 — Model    Variety   Ration    Recommended    By   the 
United   States   Department   of   Agriculture 

SCRATCH   MIXTURE: 

Cracked    corn    5  pounds 

Cracked    wheat    2   pounds 

Pinhead  oatmeal   or   hulled   oats 2  pounds 

Broken  rice,  cracked  peas,  millet,  rape, 

or  a  mixture  of  these 1  pound 

Feed  morning',   noon  and  night,   scattered  in  chaff  litter. 
Peed    middle    of    forenoon    and    afternoon,    johnnycake 
No.   1,   page   43. 

Give  any  tender  green  stuff,  and  keep  constantly  sup- 
plied with  fresh  water. 

Ration    No.    2 — Ontario    Agricultural    College    Ration 

SCRATCH  MIXTURE: 

Cracked  wheat  : 25  pounds 

Granulated    oatmeal    15  pounds 

Millet    12  pounds 

Small    cracked    corn   10  pounds 

Small  cracked  peas 6   pounds 

Broken    rice   2  pounds 

Rape   seed   1  pound 

Grit    (chicken  size)   10  pounds 

Peed  five  times  a  day  for  the  first  three  days.  Then 
give  three  feeds  of  this  a  day;  and  one  feed  of  bread  and 
milk — the  bread  being  squeezed  dry  and  crumbled;  and  one 
of  whole  wheat,  or  a  mash  made  of  equal  parts  of  bran, 
shorts,  and  corn  meal,  to  which  has  been  added  10%  of 
animal  meal  or  blood  meal. 

Give  for  green  feed  lettuce,  rape,  cabbage,  or  sprouted 
grain. 

Ration  No.  3 — Cornell  Ration  for  Chicks — (Determined   As  a 

Result    of    Numerous    Experiments    With    Different 

Rations) 


The  Ration 

Mixture  No.  1: 

8  Ibs.    rolled    oats. 

8  Ibs.  bread 
crumbs  or  crack- 
er waste. 

2  Ibs.   sifted   meat 
scrap. 

1  Ib.  bone  meal. 

Mixture  No.  2: 

3  Ibs.    cracked 

wheat. 

2  Ibs.    cracked 
corn — fine. 

1  Ib.  pinhead  oat- 
meal. 

Mixture  No.  3: 

3  Ibs.  wheat  bran. 
3  Ibs.   corn  meal. 
3   Ibs.   wheat  mid- 
dlings. 

3   Ibs.  meat  scrap. 

1  Ib.  bone  meal. 

Mixture  No.  4: 
3  Ibs.  whole  wheat 

2  Ibs.     cracked 
corn. 

1  Ib.  hulled  oats. 

Provide  fine  grit,  charcoal,  shell,  and  bone  from  the 
start.  Give  grass  range  or  plenty  of  green  feed.  Have 
fresh,  clean  water  always  available. 


The  Method 

One  to  five  days  —  Mixture  No.  1, 
moistened  with  sour  skimmed  milk, 
fed  five  times  a  day;  Mixture  No.  2  in 
shallow  tray  containing  a  little  of  No. 
3  (dry),  always  before  chicks.  Shredded 
green  feed  and  fine  grit  and  charcoal 
scattered  over  feed. 


Five  days  to  two  weeks — No.  2  in 
light  litter  twice  a  day;  No.  3  moist- 
ened with  sour  skimmed  milk,  fed 
three  times  a  day;  No.  3  (dry)  always 
available. 


Two  to  four  weeks — As  above  except 
that  the  moist  mash  is  given  twice  a 
day. 


Four  to  six  weeks  (or  until  chicks 
are  on  range).  Reduce  meals  of  moist 
mash  to  one  a  day;  Mixture  No.  4  In 
litter  twice  a  day;  dry  mash  always 
available. 


•st 


Ration   No.  4 — New  Jersey  Kxperiment   Station   Ration 

SCRATCH  MIXTURE: 

Fine  cracked  corn  40  pounds 

Fine   cracked   wheat  40   pounds 

Rolled    oats    20  pounds 

For  the  first  two  weeks  feed  four  times  a  day,  and  also 
keep  wheat  bran  always  before  the  chicks  in  open  pans  or 
small  feed  hoppers. 

After  the  second  week  feed  the  scratch  mixture  three 
times  a  day,  and  substitute  for  the  wheat  bran  the  follow- 
ing dry  mash,  to  be  kept  before  the  chicks  all  the  time: 

Wheat   bran   50   pounds 

Gluten    feed    10   pounds 

Corn    meal    10  pounds 

Ground    oats    10   pounds 

Meat   scrap   10  pounds 

Granulated    bone    10   pounds 

Fresh  water  should  be  kept  before  the  chicks  at  all 
times  and  an  abundance  of  succulent  feed  given. 

Ration  No.  5 — Ohio   Agricultural   College  Ration 

SCRATCH  MIXTURE: 

Fine    cracked    corn    60   pounds 

Cracked   wheat   40   pounds 

MASH: 

Corn  meal  :. 40  pounds 

Wheat   middlings   20   pounds 

Wheat  bran 20  pounds 

Meat   scrap  15   pounds 

Bone    meal    5  pounds 

Feed  the  scratch  mixture  morning,  noon,  and  night.  The 
mash  may  be  fed  either  wet  or  dry.  If  fed  wet  give  it  in 
the  middle  of  the  morning  and  of  the  afternoon.  If  fed 
dry  keep  it  before  the  chicks  all  the  time.  Give  also  water, 
sour  milk,  green  feed,  grit,  oyster  shell. 

Ration    No.    6 — Massachusetts    Agricultural    College   Ration 

SCRATCH   MIXTURE: 

Cracked  corn  10   pounds 

Cracked   wheat   10   pounds 

Hulled   oats  5   pounds 

Cracked    rice    2  pounds 

Millet :.   1   pound 

Feed  three  times  a  day.  Twice  a  day  give — for  the  fir 
two  weeks — a  mash  made  of  raw,  infertile  eggs  mixed  with 
rolled  oats  and  a  little  bran.  Three  eggs  to  one  quart  of 
meal  and  bran  is  about  the  right  proportion.  After  two 
weeks  give  a  wet  mash  consisting  of  one  part  each  by 
measure  of  wheat  bran,  corn  meal,  and  middlings,  and  one- 
half  part  of  meat  scrap.  For  green  feed  give  lettuce,  green 
clover,  lawn  clippings,  alfalfa,  dandelions. 

Ration  No.  7 — Maine  Kxperiment  Station  Ration 

Infertile  eggs  are  boiled  for  half  an  hour  and  then 
ground  in  an  ordinary  meat  chopper,  shells  included,  and 
mixed  with  about  six  times  their  bulk  of  rolled  oats  by  rub- 
bing both  together.  This  mixture  is  fed  for  two  or  three 
days.  It  is  given  with  chick  grit  on  the  brooder  floor  on 
short  cut  chaff  or  clover.  Beginning  about  the  third  day 
the  chicks  are  fed  this  scratch  mixture: 

Cracked   wheat   15   pounds 

Granulated    oatmeal   10  pounds 

Fine  cracked  corrj  15   pounds 

Fine  cracked  peas  3  pounds 

»       Broken    rice   2   pounds 

Chick    grit    (limestone)    5   pounds 

Fine    charcoal   2  pounds 

This  is  fed  as  soon  as  the  chicks  can  see  to  eat  in  the 
morning,  care  being  taken  to  limit  the  quantity  so  that  they 
will  be  hungry  when  the  egg  mash  is  fed  at  9  a.  m.  This 
mash  is  fed  in  tin  plates  with  low  rims.  After  about  five 
or  ten  minutes  the  plates  are  removed.  At  12:30  the  hard 
grain  mixture  is  fed  again;  at  4:30  or  5  o'clock  they  are  fed 
all  the  egg  and  rolled  oats  mash  they  will  eat  in  half  an 
hour.  When  the  chicks  are  abo_ut  three  weeks  old  the  oats 
and  egg  mixture  is  gradually  displaced  with  this  mash: 

Wheat  bran  2  pounds 

Corn  meal  4  pounds 

Liow    grade    flour   — 2   pounds 

Linseed  meal  1  pound 

Fine    meat    scrap    2   pounds 

This  mash  is  mixed  with  just  enough  water  to  moisten 
it.  For  green  feed  give  sprouted  oats. 

Ration  No.  8 — Wisconsin  Kxperiment  Station  Ration 

Give  chicks  sour  skim  milk  in  an  earthenware  fountain 
when  they  are  twenty-four  hours  old,  keeping  this  before 
them  until  they  are  seventy-two  hours  old;  then  give  chick 
feed  in  a  litter  of  chopped  clover  or  alfalfa.  Scatter  chick 
feed  over  the  litter  at  least  five  times  a  day.  On  the  follow- 
ing day  and  the  day  after  give  a  light  feed  of  moist  mash 
made  of  equal  parts  of  corn  meal,  rolled  oats,  bran,  and  mid- 
dlings, moistened  with  sour  milk.  Remove  any  mash  that 
is  not  eaten  after  ten  or  fifteen  minutes.  Continue  this 
mash  for  about  three  weeks,  then  gradually  drop  the  rolled 
oats  from  the  ration,  and  add  medium-sized  corn  a  little  at 
a  time  as  the  chicks  learn  to  eat  it. 

When  the  chicks  are  two  weeks  old  a  small  hopper  is 
filled  with  a  dry  mash  of  two  parts  of  ground  corn,  two  of 
bran,  and  one  of  middlings.  Another  hopper  is  filled  with  a 
fine  grade  of  meat  scrap  and  the  chicks  have  access  to  these 
at  all  times.  Green  feed,  grit  and  water  are  always  before 
them. 

Ration  No.  9 — Minnesota  Kxperiment  Station  Ration 

. SCRATCH  MIXTURES: 

a — Wheat    20  pounds 

Cracked  corn  20   pounds 

Millet    10   pounds 


FEEDING  CHICKS  FROM  HATCHING  TO  WEANING 


55 


b — Cracked   wheat   30   pounds 

Cracked  corn  30   pounds 

Granulated  oat  meal  20   pounds 

Feed  one  of  the  above  mixtures  three  times  a  day.  Twice 
a  day  give  one  of  the  following  mashes: 
a — Equal  parts,  by  weight,   of  finely  ground  corn,  bran  and 

shorts,   mixed   crumbly  with   sour   milk, 
b — Hard-boiled    eggs,    mixed    shell    and   all    with    four    times 

their  weight  of  dry  bread  crumbs, 
c — Johnnycake — One  pint  corn  meal,  one-half  pint  bran,  one 
teaspoonful    meat    meal,    one    egg,    one    teaspoonful    soda; 
mix    with    one-half    pint    of    water    and    bake    two    hours. 
Crumble   this   when   feeding. 

Give  for  succulent  feed,  when  they  cannot  run  outside, 
finely  chopped  lettuce,  a  piece  'of  potato,  turnip,  or  beet. 

Ration    No.    10 — Purdue    Experiment    Station    Ration 

SCRATCH  MIXTURE: 

Fine  cracked  corn  2  pounds 

Cracked   wheat   2   pounds 

Steel  cut  oats  2  pounds 

This  is  fed  five  times  a  day  for  the  first  week.  After 
that  the  following  mash  is  given — at  first  twice  a  day,  but 
after  the  chicks  become  accustomed  to  it,  it  is  kept  before 
them  all  the  time: 

Bran    2.     pounds 

Shorts    2.     pounds 

Corn    meal   2.     pounds 

Ground   bone  8     pound 

Charcoal   15   pound 

Green  feed,  grit,  and  skim  milk  in  abundance.  Either 
sprouted  oats  or  chunks  of  sod  used  as  green  feed.  As  the 
chicks  approach  weaning  age  cracked  corn  and  whole  wheat 
are  gradually  substituted  for  the  fine  mixture. 

Ration    No.    11 — Oklahoma    Experiment    Station    Ration 

For  the  first  few  days  give  five  times  a  day  a  mash  of 
hard-boiled  eggs  mixed  with  a  little  bran  and  charcoal. 
After  the  first  few  days  give  two  or  three  times  a  day  the 
following: 

SCRATCH  MIXTURE: 

Cracked   wheat   : 10  pounds 

Fine  cracked  corn  10   pounds 

Steel  cut  oats  10  pounds 

As  the  chicks  grow  older  substitute  for  the  egg  mash 
this  dry  mash: 

Bran    10  pounds 

Shorts    10   pounds 

Corn  meal  5   pounds 

Meat   scrap   5   pounds 

Charcoal    2%    pounds 

Feed  sour  milk  if  available,  giving  the  chicks  all  they 
ill   consume. 

For  succulent  feed  give  sprouted  grain,  steamed  alfalfa, 
cabbage,  or  mangels. 

»                Ration   No.   12 — Missouri   University   Ration 
MIXED    FEED: 
Rolled    oats    16   pounds 
Bread  crumbs  16   pounds 
Boiled   egg   2  pounds 

Bone    meal    1  pound 

Run  these  through  a  meat  chopper,  cut  very  fine  and 
feed  five  times  daily  on  a  feeding  board.  Continue  this  for 
a  week,  giving  sour  milk  or  buttermilk  in  addition  to  water 
to  drink.  For  a  scratch  mixture  give  a  good  chick  feed. 
After  a  week  or  ten  days  substitute  for  the  above  mixture 
this  dry  mash: 

Bran    10  pounds 

Middlings    10  pounds 

Corn  meal 10   pounds 

Fine  meat  scrap 5   pounds 

A  handful  of  bone  meal  to  a  pail  of  feed. 
After  the  first  week  green  feed  such  as  cabbage,  let- 
tuce, etc.,  should  be  fed.  The  dry  mash  is  kept  always  be- 
fore the  chickens,  and  one  feed  of  the  same  mash  moistened 
is  given  daily  about  4  o'clock  in  the  afternoon.  When  the 
chicks  are  three  or  four  weeks  old  coarser  grains  such  as 
wheat,  cracked  corn,  and  kafir  corn  may  be  substituted  for 
the  chick  feed. 

Ration   No.   13 — Manitoba   Agricultural    College   Ration 

First  feed — Bread  soaked  in  milk,  pressed  dry,  mixed 
with  hard-boiled  egg  and  a  little  finely  cut  onion  tops.  Give 
chick  feed,  scattered  in  litter  or  on  the  ground  five  times  a 
day,  or  in  place  of  this  wheat  screenings  and  finely  cracked 
corn.  After  two  weeks  give  this  dry  mash: 

Corn  meal 10  pounds 

Low  grade  flour  10  pounds 

Bran    10  pounds 

Meat   scrap  3   pounds 

A  little  bone  meal  and  powdered  charcoal. 
Feed  this  dry  in  a  pan  or  trough  twice  a  day.     If  desired 
this   mash    may   be    used    from    the   time    the    chicks   are   put 
in  the  hover.  If  milk  is  available  give  in  a  drinking  fountain. 

Ration  No.  14 — Michigan  Experiment   Station  Ration 

SCRATCH  MIXTURE: 

Millet    1   pound 

Kafir   corn    1  pound 

Cracked   wheat   2   pounds 

Cracked  corn  2  pounds 

Pinhead  oatmeal 2  pounds 

Feed  this  scratch  feed  several  times  a  day,  in  thin  litter 
at  first,  gradually  increasing  the  depth  of  the  litter  as  the 
chicks  grow  until  it  is  four  or  five  inches  deep.  With  thig 
give,  either  moist  or  dry,  the  following  mash: 


I 


Granulated  milk  1  pound 

Corn  meal  1   pound 

Bran    2  pounds 

If  sweet  skim  milk  is  obtainable  the  bran  and  meal 
may  be  fed  dry,  the  milk  given  as  drink. 

Ration  No.  15 — North    Carolina    Experiment    Station    Ration 

SCRATCH   MIXTURE: 

Cracked   wheat   2   pounds 

Fine  cracked  corn  1   pound 

Oat  meal   l   pound 

Millet    1  pound 

Feed  four  times  a  day,  supplementing  with  one  feed 
of  Johnnycake,  baked  thoroughly  and  then  crumbled  with 
boiled  egg  in  the  proportions  of  one  part  egg  to  four  of 
johnnycake.  After  two  weeks  substitute  a  dish  of  meat 
scrap  for  the  bread  and  egg.  Continue  the  fine  grain  mix- 
ture until  the  chicks  will  readily  eat  the  larger  grain  as 
fed  to  fowls.  If  the  chicks  have  all  the  milk  they  will  drink 
the  meat  scrap  may  be  omitted. 

Ration  No.   16 — Montana   Experiment   Station  Ration 

SCRATCH  MIXTURE: 

Cracked  wheat   15  pounds 

Fine  cracked  corn  15   pounds 

Fine  cracked  peas  15   pounds 

Cracked  barley   (bald)   10   pounds 

Broken    rice   2   pounds 

Chick    gilt    5   pounds 

Oyster  shell  (fine)  5  pounds 

Crushed   bone    (fine)    5   pounds 

Fine  charcoal  2  pounds 

For  the  first  two  days  the  chicks  are  given  only  a  little 
dry  bran,  in  shallow  pans,  five  times  a  day.  After  the  sec- 
ond day  two  of  the  feeds  of  bran  are  replaced  with  the 
above  mixture.  Beginning  with  the  third  week  the  amount 
of  this  is  much  increased,  and  the  chicks  are  also  allowed 
free  access  to  the  following  dry  mash  kept  in  hoppers: 

Bran    10  pounds 

Corn  meal  10  pounds 

Barley  meal  10  pounds 

Ground  oats  10  pounds 

Shorts    10   pounds 

Meat  scraps  10  pounds 

Salt    20  ounces 

Until  out  on  range  the  chicks  should  have  sprouted  oats. 
Water,  oyster  shell,  grit,  and  charcoal  are  kept  before  them 
all  the  time. 

Ration   No.   17 — Oregon   Agricultural    College   Ration 

a — First  feed — Rolled  oats,  or  bread  crumbs  soaked  in 
milk,  or  finely  cracked  wheat  and  corn.  For  the  first  day 
keep  the  rolled  oats,  or  whatever  is  fed,  before  them  all 
the  time,  but  after  they  have  learned  to  eat,  better  results 
will  be  obtained  by  feeding  four  or  five  times  a  day  all  they 
will  clean  up  in  a  short  time.  Cheaper  feeds  may  be  sub- 
stituted after  the  first  few  days.  Cracked  corn  or  cracked 
wheat,  or  both,  should  form  the  basis  of  the  grain  ration. 
The  chicks  must  also  have  animal  feed,  green  feed,  and  grit. 
Skim  milk  is  hardly  concentrated  enough  to  furnish  the 
necessary  animal  feed.  Milk  is .  better  fed  clabbered,  or 
made  into  cottage  cheese.  A  daily  feed  of  wet  mash  is  ben- 
eficial; good  results,  however,  are  obtained  by  the  use  of 
dry  feeds  alone,  if  the  chicks  are  well  supplied  with  green 
feed. 

b — First  day  give  milk  to  drink — preferably  sour  milk 
unless  it  is  certain  that  sweet  milk  will  be  regularly  avail- 
able. The  morning  of  the  second  day  start  feeding  a  grain 
mixture  as  follows: 

Fine  cracked  corn  7  pounds 

Steel  cut  oats  2   pounds 

Cracked  wheat  1  pound 

If  the  other  grains  are  not  available  corn  alone  may 
be  used,  or  to  secure  variety  a  good  grade  of  commercial 
chick  feed.  Feed  the  grain  five  times  daily,  keeping  the 
chicks  a  little  hungry  until  the  last  feed  at  night,  when 
they  should  have  all  they  can  eat.  If  infertile  eggs  are 
available  they  may  be  soft  boiled  and  mixed  with  bran  to  a 
crumbly  mixture,  and  fed  once  or  twice  a  day  in  place  of 
grain,  preferably  about  noon,  giving  as  much  as  they  will 
clean  up  in  fifteen  minutes.  As  soon  as  they  have  learned 
to  scratch  for  the  grain,  increase  the  depth  of  the  litter  in 
which  it  is  fed.  Feed  green  feed  once  daily.  Keep  fine  grit 
and  granulated  bone  always  before  them  in  hoppers.  In 
the  second  week  gradually  reduce  the  number  of  grain  feeds 
until  they  are  getting  only  three  a  day;  and  substitute  for 
the  bran  a  mash  as  follows: 

Bran    3  pounds 

Snorts   or  middlings   '. 2   pounds 

Keep  this  before  them  in  hoppers.  Moist  ma--.h  may  be 
substituted  for  the  noon  grain  feed  if  desired.  If  milk,  is 
not  available  add  12  per  cent  of  meat  scrap  to  the  mash. 

Ration    No.    18 — Washington    Agricultural    College    Ration 

SCRATCH   MIXTURE: 

Any   standard   chick    feed,   or    the   following  home   mixture: 
Cracked  corn,  milo  ihaize,   or 

Egyptian  corn  4  pounds 

Steel    cut   oats   4  pounds 

Cracked   wheat   1   pound 

Cracked  peas  1  pound 

Feed  every  two  hours  altern."  ling  with  the  grain  feed: 

Oat  flakes  1  pound 

Boiled    egg   %    pound 

Chick   grit   or  sand       4  tablespoons 

Charcoal   4  tablespoons 


56 


HOW  TO  FEED  POULTRY  FOR  ANY  PURPOSE  WITH  PROFIT 


On   the   second   day  supply   a   bran   mash   in   shallow   pans   as 
follows: 

Wheat   bran   8   pounds 

Bone  meal  ' 4  pounds 

Medium   sand   4  pounds 

Charcoal 1   pound 

After  eight  or  nine  days  discontinue  the  oatmeal  mash   and 
substitute    the   following: 

Wheat  bran   12  pounds 

Shorts    3  pounds 

Ground  oats  6   pounds 

Alfalfa   meal   3   pounds 

Soy   bean   meal   1  pound 

Bone  meal  2   pounds 

Meat  or  fish  meal  1  pound 

Charcoal   3   pounds 

Feed    sprouted    oats,    fine    cut    clover,    or    lawn 
clipping's. 

Ration  Xo.  19 — California  Experiment  Station  Ration 

SCRATCH  MIXTURE: 

Wheat 20   pounds 

Granulated   oats   15   pounds 

Millet 5   pounds 

Rice    2   pounds 

Cracked  corn  6   pounds 

Grit   10   pounds 

Charcoal    5   pounds 

Bone  meal  5  pounds 

The  ingredients  in  this  mixture  are  used  at  first  very 
fine.  After  about  ten  days  coarser  wheat  and  oats  are  given, 
the  amount  being  gradually  increased  until  no  small  chick 
feed  is  used.  Then  whole  wheat  and  coarser  cracked  corn 
are  added  and  the  amounts  of  these  gradually  increased  un- 
til at  six  or  seven  weeks  they  are  the  only  grains  fed. 

After  the  eighth  to  tenth  day  a  mash  is  used,  which  is 
not  always  of  the  same  composition,  variations  being  made 
to  suit  the  availability  and  cost  of  feeds.  The  two  follow- 
ing are  recommended  as  equally  satisfactory: 

a — Bran    3  pounds 

Shorts ;  2   pounds 

Coarse  corn  meal  1   pound 

Oatmeal    1   pound 

Meat  meal -....1A   pound 

Bone    meal  • %    pound 

Charcoal    %    pound 

b — Bran    4  pounds 

Alfalfa    meal    2  pounds 

Corn  meal  1   pound 

Meat  meal  *4    pound 

Bone  meal  14    pound 

Charcoal    %   pound 

These    mashes   are    fed    either   dry    or    moist. 

Ration    No.    20 — Kansas    Experiment    Station    Ration 

SCRATCH   MIXTURE: 

Corn    chop    (sifted)    2   pounds 

Cracked  kafir  corn   2  pounds 

Cracked   wheat  2  pounds 

Millet    .'. 1  pound 

This  is  fed  in  litter  five  times  a  day  for  the  first  few 
days,  after  that  three  times  a  day.  After  a  few  weeks 
whole  wheat  and  larger  cracked  corn  are  substituted  for 
the  small  grains.  The  following  dry  mash  is  kept  before 
the  chicks  all  the  time: 

Corn  meal  2   pounds 

Shorts 2   pounds 

Bran    2   pounds 

Meat  scrap  2  pounds 

Charcoal  %   pound 

These  foregoing  rations  have  been  taken  mostly  from 
recent  bulletins,  though  in  a  few  cases  where  recent  bul- 
letins either  do  not  give  specifications  as  recommended  for 
a  state,  or  give  one  or  more  of  the  rations  for  other 
states  as  given  above,  the  writer  has  gone  to  publications 
of  eight  or  ten  years  back  for  rations  as  recommended 
especially  for  the  locality.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  no  import- 
ant changes  in  chick  feeding  practice  have  occurred  in  the 
past  decade — except  changes  in  individual  practice.  The 
popularization  of  the  use  of  dry  mashes,  which  took  place 
in  the  early  years  of  this  century  made  the  only  consider- 
able change  in  methods  of  chick  feeding  that  has  taken 
place  since  the  development  of  artificial  hatchers  and 
brooders  made  it  possible  to  handle  chicks  in  large  num- 
bers. All  rations — probably — that  have  been  used  at  ex- 
periment stations  and  'colleges  were  first  used  by  practi- 
cal commercial  poultrymen,  but  in  general  the  statements 
oi  practical  poultrymen  of  their  methods  of  feeding  are 
not  specific  as  to  amounts,  while  the  educator  or  investi- 
gator ascertains  either  by  measurements  of  ingredients  in 
commercial  poultry  keepers'  rations,  or  by  experimenting 
with  the  ingredients  he  recommends  in  various  propor- 
tions, the  ordinary  average  composition  of  the  ration  he 


uses.  The  great  value  of  formulas  given  by  educational 
and  experimental  workers  is  that  they  supply  definite 
standards  as  bases  for  feeding.  A  superficial  comparison 
of  the  twenty  rations  here  given,  however,  will  show  any 
person  that  no  fine  balancing  of  ingredients  is  necessary. 
If  that  were  so  we  would  not  find  dissimilar  rations  used 
in  near-by  states  with  the  same  climate  and  general  con- 
ditions, and  similar  rations  used  in  widely  separated 
states  with  very  different  climatic  conditions.  Some  states 
not  represented  here  were  omitted  because  the  rations 
their  experiment  stations  recommend  are  those  that  have 
been  popularized  by  institutions  in  the  above  list.  Men 
trained  in  an  institution  in  one  section  and  taking  charge 
of  work  in  an  institution  in  a  different  section"  are  apt  to 
take  with  them  the  methods  they  learned,  and  if  they  are 
not  themselves  adaptable  they  may  at  first  urge  the  meth- 
ods they  know  best,  though  the  practice  of  good  local 
poultrymen  would  indicate  certain  modifications  of  it  as 
desirable  for  that  locality.  The  thing  that  most  affects 
the  acceptance  of  particular  formulas  for  feeding  in  many 
localities  remote  from  the  institutions  at  which  they  have 
been  worked  out  is  the  completeness  of  detail  in  the  de- 
scription of  a  feeding  method.  In  other  words,  the  better 
an  educator  does  his  peculiar  part  of  giving  the  public  in- 
struction, the  more  widely  his  ideas  will  be  accepted,  re- 
gardless of  the  fact  that  many  other  formulas,  not  so 
well  piesented  may  be  just  as  good,  and  some  may  be  bet- 
ter for  particular  localities  and  conditions. 

The  reader  will  note  that  in  some  of  the  rations  given 
above,  gradual  changes  to  suit  the  age  of  chicks,  or  to 
use  more  economical  feeds  are  indicated,  and  that  these 
changes  obviously  are  not  made  in  accordance  with  care- 
ful computations  of  the  chemical  values  of  the  feeds  used, 
but  are  such  changes  as  a  practical  feeder  would  make 
on  practical  judgment  of  the  commonly  known  properties 
of  feeds.  Also  in  using  any  formula,  the  quality  of  arti- 
cles in  it — as  they  can  be  obtained — must  be  considered, 
and  if  an  article  is  of  poor  quality,  the  standard  of  the 
ration  as  a  whole  must  be  kept  up  by  increasing  the  quan- 
tity of  something  of  higher  nutritive  value.  It  is  the  in- 
tention always  to  avoid  the  use  of  inferior  articles,  espe- 
cially for  brooder  chicks,  yet  there  are  times  when  a 
poultry  keeper  has  to  use  them  to  a  limited  extent  because 
of  inability  to  get  sufficient  supplies  of  the  desired  quality. 

In  general  a  poultry  keeper  may  be  sure  that  a  ration 
tljat  gives  satisfactory  results  at  an  agricultural  college 
or  experiment  station  in  his  section  is  a  good  ration  for 
him  to  use.  Comparison  of  the  rations  recommended  by 
various  institutions  also  should  show  him  that  if  for  any 
reason  a  ration  recommended  especially  to  poultry  keep- 
ers of  his  state  is  not  as  available,  or  as  economical  as 
some  other  ration,  he  not  only  has  a  wide  range  of  choice 
in  rations  recommended  by  other  institutions,  but  the 
whole  list  of  standard  commercial  mixtures  is  used  suc- 
cessfully in  nearly  every  part  of  the  country,  their  dis- 
tribution being  governed  not  by  their  peculiar  adapt- 
ability to  certain  localities,  but  by  costs  of  transportation. 

Some   Chick   Rations  Used  and  Recommended  by  Prac- 
tical Poultry  Growers 

Ration    No.    21 — Henry    D.    Smith's    Ration 

Peed  five  or  six  times  a  day  any  good  commercial  chick 
feed,  alternated  with  feeds  of  dry  mash  or  beef  scrap.  For 
dry  mash  use  a  mixture  of  bran  shorts  and  corn  meal,  equal 
parts  by  measure.  Feed  beef  scrap  separately  in  troughs 
once  or  twice  a  day,  giving  the  chicks  what  they  will  clean 
up  in  a  few  minutes.  After  the  chicks  are  three  or  four 
wee"ks  old  the  chick  feed  is  largely  discontinued,  and  with 
the  dry  mash  and  scraps  still  given  as  described,  they  are 
fed  a  scratch  mixture  consisting  of  two  parts  cracked  corn, 
one  part  cracked  wheat,  and  one  part  hulled  oats.  Water  is 
kept  before  them  all  the  time  in  small  pans,  fed  by  auto- 
matic faucets.  For  green  feed,  cut  clover  is  used. 


FEEDING  CHICKS  FROM  HATCHING  TO  WEANING 


57 


Ration  No.  22 — H.  J.  Blanehnrd's  Ration 

First  few  days  feed  granulated  oatmeal  four  times  a 
day  and  give  water — not  too  cold.  Then  begin  gradually 
working-  them  on  a  diet  of  cake  alternated  with  cracked 
wheat.  The  cake  is  made  of  ground  oats  (hulls -sifted  out), 
corn  meal  and  bran,  about  equal  parts  by  measure,  with  a 
little  high-grade  beef  scraps  mixed  in  while  dry.  The  mix- 
ture is  moistened  with  milk,  salted  as  for  the  table,  leavened 
with  soda,  and  baked.  As  the  chicks  grow  older  the  amount 
of  beef  scrap  is  gradually  increased.  Just  as  soon  as  we 
can  vet  fresh  grass  or  clover  it  is  fed  daily,  cut  in  one- 
eighth  inch  lengths.  Chard,  lettuce,  and  beet  tops  are  also 
used. 

Ration  No.  23 — James  Rankin's  Ration 

Start  with  bread  crumbs  and  hard  boiled  egg  chopped 
fine  one  part  of  egg  to  five  parts  of  bread,  with  plenty  of 
fine  grit  mixed  in.  After  three  days  give  equal  quantities 
of  wheat  bran  and  corn  meal  with  a  little  fine  beef  scraps, 
and  one  feed  each  day  of  rolled  oats  and  cracked  corn.  As 
they  grow  older  give  clabbered  milk,  boiled  potatoes  and 
green  grass  daily. 

Mr.  Rankin,  who  was  one  of  the  most  skillful  poultry- 
men  in  America,  once  grew  four  hundred  Brahmas  to  four 
or  five  months  age,  in  a  yard  only  six  rods  square,  using 
this  ration  the  greater  part  of  the  time,  but  toward  the 
last  feeding  whole  corn  and  giving  finely  cut  corn  fodder 
for  green  feed. 

Ration  No.  24 — W.  D.  Rudd's  Ration 

First  two  weeks — crumbled  johnnycake  and  granulated 
oats,  dry;  with  green  feed  and  powdered  charcoal  always 
before  them.  After  two  weeks  give  also  whole  or  broken 
wheat  and  cracked  corn.  At  three  weeks  begin  to  give 
moist  feed,  stale  bread  soaked  in  sweet  milk,  thickened  with 
corn  meal — meal  about  one-half  of  the  whole.  At  four 
weeks  discontinue  granulated  oats,  and  keep  cracked  corn 
always  before  the  chicks. 

Ration  No.  25 — J.  A.  DeMar's  Ration 

First  feed  Spratt's  chick  meal,  alternated  with  rolled 
oats,  cut  oatmeal  and  fine  cracked  corn,  with  sweet  milk 
in  one  fountain  and  water  in  another.  Feed  in  this  way 
about  three  weeks,  then  put  them  on  a  mash  made  of  two 
parts  corn  meal,  and  one  part  shorts,  with  a  little  beef  scrap 
and  some  grit.  This  is  fed  once  a  day,  just  what  they  will 
eat  up  clean.  They  are  fed  the  first  two  weeks  about  five 
times  a  day,  after  that  three  or  four  times.  After  the  chicks 
are  three  w'eeks  old  cracked  corn,  wheat  and  barley  are  sub- 
stituted for  the  oatmeal  and  Spratt's  feed.  From  the  time 
the  chicks  are  .a  week  old  they  are  fed  cabbage  and  mangels. 

Ration  No.  26 — P.  R.  Park's   First   Dry  Feed   Ration 

Two  bags  of  corn  to  one  bag  of  the  best  wheat,  well 
mixed  and  ground  to  about  the  size  of  a  pinhead,  and  fed 
dry  in  a  dish  or  hopper,  also  a  dish  of  the  best  beef  scrap, 
kept  constantly  before  the  chicks  from  the  time  they  are 
hatched.  These,  with  water  or  milk  to  drink — milk  preferred, 
form  the  entire  diet  on  range  which  provides  only  limited 
green  feed. 

This  ration  is  of  special  interest  because  ,its  use  marked 
the  beginning  of  the  dry  feeding  movement.  It  was  first 
used  by  Mr.  Park  in  1897,  and  first  published  by  him  in  a 
symposium  on  feeding  in  Farm-Poultry,  April,  1901. 

The  six  rations  last  given  are  typical  of  good  prac- 
tice among  poultry  keepers  who  worked  out  rations  by 
trying  them  out,  and  worked  with  rough  measurements, 
and  varied  rations  from  time  to  time  according  to  their 
judgment,  before  educational  methods  demanded  more 
exact  specifications  for  feeding.  Ration  No.  24,  taken  from 
a  circular  of  1897,  was  probably  used  as  there  given  from 
about  1872. 

Observations    on    Some    Features    of    Common    Chick 
Rations. 

The  reader  studying  the  rations  that  have  been  given 
will  note  here  and  there  insistence  by  some  authorities 
upon  points  which  others  regard  as  immaterial,  and  also 
that  there  are  some  recommendations  of  the  author  of  this 
book  with  which  various  authorities  appear  to  disagree. 
A  case  in  point  is  the  use  of  hard-boiled  eggs.  Probably 
three-fourths  of  the  instructions  for  feeding  young  chick- 
ens strongly  advise  the  use  of  hard-boiled  eggs.  Every  one 
knows  that  in  cooking  eggs  for  the  table  one  egg  may  be 
boiled  hard  yet  be  tender  and  easily  digestible,  and  an- 
other boiled  in  a  different  manner  may  be  tough  and  in- 
digestible. There  is  no  doubt  that  eggs  can  be  hard-boiled 
so  that  they  will  be  all  right  for  young  chickens;  there  is 
equally  no  doubt  that  the  greater  part  of  the  eggs  cooked 
as  first  feeds  for  young  chickens,  being  stale  to  begin  with, 
and  boiled  with  no  attention  to  any  point  but  thorough- 
ness of  boiling,  are  quite  unsuitable  for  this  purpose.  The 


writer  early  in  his  commercial  poultry  keeping  experience 
quit  hard-boiling  eggs  for  chicks  because  he  preferred  to 
use  them  in  johnnycake,  and  if  he  had  any  not  used  in 
that  way,  it  was  much  easier  to  make  raw  mashes  with 
them.  He  had  no  particular  trouble  attributable  to  hard- 
boiled  eggs.  But  after  he  engaged  in  journalism,  and  was 
often  called  upon  to  advise  poultry  keepers  who  were 
having  trouble  with  their  young  chickens,  he  found  that 
the  feeding  of  hard-boiled  eggs  was  one  of  the  most 
common  causes  of  indigestion  in  young  chickens,  and  was 
not  generally  suspected  as  the  cause,  for  the  simple  rea- 
son that  nearly  all  authorities  classed  it  as  one  of  the 
best  feeds,  and  it  was  often  fed  without  any  bad  results. 
Whenever  there  is  trouble  with  chicks  that  are  given 
hard-boiled  eggs  freely,  and  no  other  plain  cause  for  it 
can  be  found,  it  is  reasonably  safe  to  advise  the  poultry 
keeper  that  if  the  hard-boiled  egg  is  cut  out  the  trouble 
will  promptly  disappear. 

Another  case  in  point  is  the  use  of  meat  meals  and 
meat  scraps,,  bone  meal,  and  charcoal  in  liberal  propor- 
tions in  mash  mixtures,  especially  in  moist  mashes.  Many 
of  the  formulas  recommended  contain  more  of  these 
things  than  chicks  with  normal  appetites  are  likely  to 
relish  as  continuous  diet.  In  dry  feeding  this  may  not 
do  much  harm,  or  may  do  no  harm,  because  the  chicks 
can  pick  the  mash  over  and  to  some  extent  select  their 
diet.  They  can  reject  an  excess  of  charcoal,  and  fine  bone 
meal,  being  heavier  than  other  ingredients,  works  to  the 
bottom  of  the  pan  or  hopper  and  much  of  it  is  eventually 
thrown  away.  Much  more  meat  can  be  eaten  without  bad 
results  in  a  dry  mash  than  in  a  moist  one.  But  even  a  dry 
mash  may  be  rendered  unpalatable  by  an  excess  of  bone 
and  charcoal,  or  dangerous  by  an  excess  of  highly  con- 
centrated animal  feed,  and  in  the  latter  case  the  normal 
appetite  leads  the  chick  to  stop  eating  the  mash  when  the 
taste  of  meat  in  it  is  no  longer  agreeable,  with  the  result 
that  it  takes  much  less  of  the  other  things  in  the  mash 
than  it  was  intended  to  take.  So  whenever  in  feeding  one 
of  these  dry  mashes  with  heavy  proportions  of  meat, 
bone  meal  and  charcoal,  the  chicks  seem  not  to  relish  the 
mash,  the  best  thing  to  do  is  to  cut  out  the  bone  and 
charcoal  entirely  for  a  few  days,  and  greatly  reduce  the 
meat  scrap.  Then  experiment  a  little  with  smaller  propor- 
tions of  the  bone  meal  and  charcoal  to  determine  what 
the  chicks  want,  or — better  still — simply  provide  these  ac- 
cessories in  separate  receptacles  so  that  the  chicks  can 
eat  them  at  will. 

The  reader  examining  the  rations  given  will  also  note 
conflicting  instructions  and  opinions  in  regard  to  the  use 
of  milk  in  different  forms.  It  is  apparent  that  some  poul- 
try keepers  feed  milk  in  any  form  without  any  bad  effects, 
and  that  others  get  better  results  from  sour  milk  th  in 
from  sweet,  and  that  some  can  use  either  regularly,  but 
cannot  change  abruptly  from  one  to  the  other.  These  dif- 
ferences are  due  either  to  other  things  in  the  ration  or  to 
the  fact  that  milk  in  a  particular  form  does  not  agree  with 
certain  stock,  or  perhaps  to  a  tendency  to  indigestion  ac- 
companying some  weakness  originating  in  wrong  temper- 
ature, or  in  the  effect  of  contaminated  land.  No  one  can 
say  with  certainty  on  a  statement  of  the  ration,  what  other 
cause  may  affect  results  of  feeding  it,  but  most  practical 
poultry  keepers  of  wide- experience  know  that  thoroughly 
rugged  and  hearty  chicks  are  not  upset  by  little  things  of 
.this  kind  and  that  there  is  always,  in  such  cases,  some 
condition  which  should  be  remedied  for  the  general  good 
of  the  flock. 

How  Much  to  Feed  Chicks 
Instructions    for   feeding  chicks   generally  advise   the 


58 


HOW  TO  FEED  POULTRY  FOR  ANY  PURPOSE  WITH  PROFIT 


novice  to  regulate  the  amount  given  by  the  appetites  of 
the  chicks.  This  seems  to  the  novice  quite  unsatisfactory. 
He  would  like  definite  statements  of  quantities  to  feed  a 
given  number  of  chicks.  It  should  be  definitely  understood 
that  chicks  cannot  be  fed  by  the  scales;  but,  understanding 
that,  knowledge  of  what  a  particular  lot  of  chicks  re- 
quired*, or  of  average  requirements  of  a  given  number  of 
chicks  will  enable  a  beginner  to  judge  whether  his  chicks 
are  eating  about  a  normal  ration.  The  Washington  Ex- 
periment Station  has  worked  this  out  for  100  average 
chicks  fed  the  ration  numbered  18  on  page  55.  The  fol- 
lowing statement  is  an  abstract  from  their  report. 

Second  Day — First  Feed: 

11:30  A.  M. — 1   oz.   oatmeal  mixture. 
2:30  P.  M. — 1   oz.   oatmeal  mixture. 
4:00  P.  M. — 1%   oz.  oatmeal  mixture. 
At  dusk — iy2    oz.   oatmeal  mixture. 

Third   Day: 

Daylig-ht — 1  oz.  oatmeal  mixture. 
10:00   A.   M. — 1   oz.   oatmeal  mixture. 
12:00  Noon — 1  oz.  oatmeal  mixture. 
2:00  P.   M. — l1/^    oz.   oatmeal  mixture. 
4:00  P.  M. — 1%    oz.   oatmeal  mixture. 
Dusk — 2  oz.  chick  feed. 

Fourth  Day: 

8:00  A.  M. — 2   oz.   oatmeal  mixture. 
10:00   A.   M. — 2   oz.   chick  feed. 
12:00  Noon — 2   oz.   oatmeal  mixture. 
2:00  P.  M. — 2   oz.   chick  feed. 
4:00  P.  M. — 2  oz.  oatmeal  mixture. 
Dusk — 3   oz.   chick  feed. 
Night — 2   oz.   chick  feed  for  first  feed  next  morning. 

Fifth  Day: 

8:00  A.  M. — 2  oz.  oatmeal  mixture. 
10:00  A.  M. — 3  oz.  chick  feed. 
12:00  Noon — 3   oz.   oatmeal  mixture. 
2:00   P.  M. — 3   oz.   chick  feed. 
4:00  P.  M. — 2  oz.  oatmeal  mixture. 

Dusk — Observe  crops  of  chicks  and  give  chick  feed 

if  needed. 
Night — 2  oz.  chick  feed. 

Sixth  Day: 

8:00  A.  M. — 3  oz.  oatmeal  mixture. 
10:00  A.  M. — 3  oz.  chick  feed. 
12:00  Noon — 3   oz.   oatmeal  mixture. 
2:00   P.  M. — 3   oz.  chick  feed. 
4:00   P.  M. — 4  oz.   oatmeal  mixture. 

DUSk — 4  Oz.  chick  feed — more    if    needed    for   fair- 
ly  full    crops. 
Night — 4  oz.  chick  feed. 

Seventh   and    Eighth    Days: 

8:00  A.  M. — 3  oz.  chick  feed. 
10:00   A.  M. — 4  oz.  oatmeal  mixture. 
12:00  Noon — 4-oz.  mash. 
2:00  P.  M. — 4  oz.   chick  feed. 
4:00  P.  M. — 4  oz.   mash. 

Dusk — 5  oz.  chick  feed. 

Ninth   Day: 

8:00  A.  M. — 4  oz.   chick  feed. 

10:00  A.  M. — 4  oz.   chick  feed. 

12:00  Noon — 5  oz.  mash. 

2:00  P.  M. — 5  oz.   chick  feed. 

4:00   P.  M. — 6  oz.   chick  feed. 

Night— 4  oz.  chick  feed. 

It  should  be  noted  that  in  addition  to  these  definite 
amounts  given  at  definite  times  the  chicks  have  a  bran  mash 
always  accessible,  hence  the  amount  they  eat  is  probably 
always  a  little  in  excess  of  the  above  quantities. 


The  amount  of  feed  consumed  at  first  is  so  small  that 
inexperienced  feeders  are  apt  to  make  the  .mistake  of  in- 
creasing the  amount  given  too  slowly,  leaving  the  chicks 
somewhat  underfed.  For  this  reason  as  well  as  to  insure 
that  chicks  can  always  have  something  when  hungry  it 
i?  good  policy,  no  matter  whether  a  particular  ration  that 
may  have  been  selected  calls  for  it  or  not,  to  keep  a  light 
dry  mash  always  before  the  chicks.  If  this  is  consumed 
Quickly,  and  the  chicks  seem  quite  hungry  for  it,  the 
quantity  given  at  each  regular  feed  should  be  increased 
until  the  chicks  will  only  take  an  occasional  nibble  at  the 
permanent  dry  mash. 


Relation  of  Ration  to  Purpose  in  Feeding 

Up  to  weaning  age  the  same  ration  will  serve  for  al 
chicks  regardless  of  the  particular  use  to  which  they  are 
to  be  put.  There  is  no  perceptible  advantage  in  making 
adjustments  of  rations  with  a  view  to  the  special  object 
for  which  the  chicks  are  grown,  because  the  practical  way 
to  handle  chicks  is  to  give  all  the  ration  suited  for  normal 
development  up  to  this  age,  and  in  the  next  stage  separate 
them  according  to  quality  and  apparent  capacity  for  de- 
velopment and  then  apply  the  rations  and  treatment  suited 
to  different  purposes.  This  will  be  taken  up  in  detail  in 
the  next  chapter.  The  period  considered  in  this  chapter, 
from  hatching  to  weaning,  should  be  considered  a  general 
preparatory  period  in  which  each  individual  chick  shows 
its  capacity  to  respond  to  and  profit  by  good  feeding  and 
management. 

It  is  commonly  said  that  the  first  three  weeks  are  the 
most  critical  period  in  the  life  of  a  chick,  and  that  chicks 
that  survive  after  the  third  week  can  usually  be  raised. 
While  it  is  true  that  losses  are  ordinarily  most  numerous 
in  the  first  two  or  three  weeks,  it  is  a  mistake  to  suppose 
that  the  necessity  for  careful  management  is  diminished 
after  the  chicks  reach  that  age.  Relaxation  of  care  in  the 
latter  half  of  the  brooding  period  probably  stunts  as 
many  chickens,  that  up  to  that  time  were  normal,  as  are 
lost  outright  in  the  first  few  weeks.  Many  poultry  keepers 
discontinue  heat  in  brooders  too  soon,  thinking  it  econo- 
my to  save  coal  even  at  the  risk  of  chilling  the  chicks.  It 
is  always  wiser  to  have  heat  that  the  chicks  can  get  to  if 
they  feel  the  need  of  it,  than  to  take  chances  of  their  be- 
coming chilled.  Until  settled  warm  weather  comes,  chicks 
need  some  heat  until  well  covered  with  feathers.  Failure 
to  supply  it  has  much  to  do  with  apparent  inefficiency  of 
rations.  Also  after  the  chick  is  eating  coarse  feed  freely 
it  should  still  have  more  meals  than  old  birds  get.  The 
poultry  keeper  who  wants  to  grow  really  good  chicks 
should  make  it  a  point  to  feed  them  all  they  will  eat,  and 
to  reduce  the  number  of  feedings  only  as  the  chicks  be- 
come indifferent  to  the  extra  feeds. 


I 

f 


CHA  PTE  R    VI 


Feeding  Chicks  From  Weaning  to  Maturity 


Relation  of  Conditions  to  Development  For  Different  Purposes — Model  Rations  For  Growing  Chickens — Cultivation 

of  Good  Habits  in  Feeding — Use  of  Green  Feeds  and  Milk  in  Hot  Weather — Average  Normal 

Weights  of  Various  Breeds  at  Different  Ages — Amount  and  Cost  of  Feed 

Required  to  Produce  a  Pound  of  Poultry  Meat 


WHEN  chicks  have  been  reared  to  weaning  age 
with  hens,  each  hen  having  from  ten  or  twelve 
to  perhaps  eighteen  or  twenty  chicks,  it  is 
usual  to  combine  broods  when  the  hens  are  taken  away, 
and  to  put  the  chicks  in  lots  of  a  few  dozen  in  roosting 
coops  three  or  four  feet  wide  by  six  to  eight  feet  long, — 
coops  that  can  be  easily  moved  about  by  two  men.  When 
the  chicks  are  started  in  small  brooders  the  same  course 
may  be  followed,  but  a  brooder  lot  of  chicks  will  per- 
haps be  enough  for  a  single  roosting  coop,  or  the  chicks 
from  a  brooder  of  medium  capacity, — divided  according  to 
sex — may  make  two  lots  for  two  roosting  coops.  Nearly 
always  when  hens  or  small  brooders  are  used,  operations 
are  on  a  scale  or  a  system  that  uses  roosting  coops  of 
relatively  mall  size  and  capacity  for  the  growing  chicks. 

When  chicks  are  brooded  in  lots  of  two  or  three 
hundred  and  upward,  they  usually  are  divided  at  this  age 
into  much  smaller  flocks,  especially  if  there  is  land 
available  to  give  them  good  range,  and  it  is  desired  to 
make  the  best  possible  use  of  this  advantage.  It  must  be 
kept  in  mind  that  the  nature  of  chickens  is  to  range  only 
within  a  comparatively  short  radius  from  their  coops,  and 
that  while  hunger  will  naturally  make  them  forage  a  lit- 
tle farther  when  in  such  large  flocks  that  the  feed  on  the 
range  they  would  normally  use  is  soon  exhausted,  they 
will  not  as  a  rule  go  enough  farther  to  make  it  practical 
to  get  the  same  benefit  from  range  for  flocks  of  a  hun- 
dred or  more  with  the  houses  at  long  distances  that  would 
be  obtained  for  flocks  of  from  fifty  to  seventy-five  or 
eighty  at  much  shorter  distances. 

Practically  the  only  poultry  growers  who  give  large 
stocks  of  chickens  range  enough  to  get  all  the  advantages 
of  range  are  the  large  breeders  of  exhibition  poultry. 
Not  all  of  these  fully  realize  that  purpose,  but  all  get  a 
great  deal  of  the  advantage  of  range,  and  many  get  all 
of  it.  Those  who  can  give  less  range 
than  they  wish  are  invariably  careful 
to  feed  so  as  to  make  up  what  the 
range  lacks,  and  some  with  the  best  of 
range  conditions  make  doubly  sure 
that  the  growing  chicks  will  lack  noth- 
ing, by  giving  them  additional  vege- 
table and  animal  feed.  Most  small 
breeders  of  choice  exhibition  stock 
give  their  growing  chicks  good  range, 
limiting  the  numbers  reared  as  neces- 
sary in  order  to  do  so,  but  there  are 
still  many  who  grow  some  exhibition 
stock  of  good  quality  in  limited  quar- 
ters and  on  land  that  produces  no 
vegetation  to  speak  of  for  them.  The 
greatest  difficulty  in  growing  chickens 
for  exhibition  purposes  under  such 
conditions  is  to  secure  intensity  of 
color  in  sections  that  tend  to  be  weak, 
and  a  luster  and  finish  in  the  plumage 
that  make  much  of  the  difference  be- 


tween    the    top-notcher    and    the     second-rate    specimen 

In  all  daik-colored  birds  grown  under  intensive 
conditions,  it  is  difficult  to  get  wing  flights  free  from 
white,  or  to  prevent  white  from  appearing  in  small 
amounts  where  it  is  not  wanted.  Even  in  birds  that  have 
a  great  deal  of  white  in  the  plumage,  as  the  "ermine" 
type  of  color  of  the  Light  Brahmas  and  other  varieties 
with  the  same  markings,  birds  that  are  not  grown  on 
good  range  or  liberally  supplied  with  everything  needed 
for  their  highest  development  will  be  likely  to  show 
much  more  white  than  is  desirable  in  black  sections  and 
the  black  in  them  generally  will  be  dull  and  lusterless. 
White  varieties  are  better  suited  than  any  others  for 
growing  under  such  conditions,  yet  the  breeder  who  fan- 
cies a  variety  especially  subject  to  the  development  of 
plumage  faults  when  grown  under  conditions  that  make 
such  faults  hard  to  avoid,  will  usually  find  that,  by  avoid- 
ing overcrowding  and  giving  his  stock  the  best  of  atten- 
tion, he  produces  birds  fully  equal  to  those  grown  by  the 
majority  of  small  breeders  who  have  fairly  good  range 
and  other  favorable  conditions  for  their  growing  chicks, 
and — relying  upon  these — are  careless  about  providing  at 
all  times  the  things  necessary  for  the  best  development 
of  their  chicks. 

While  it  is  always  gratifying  to  a  poultry  keeper  to 
produce  stock  of  the  highest  possible  excellence,  failure 
fully  to  reach  the  best  development  is  not  an  unbearable 
hardship  to  those  who  enjoy  producing  fine  birds,  and 
must  indulge  this  taste  under  conditions  that  are  more 
or  less  adverse  to  it;  nor  is  it  in  any  way  particularly 
disadvantageous  except  to  those  who  exhibit  in  the 
strongest  competition  and  breed  to  sell  to  the  most  cri- 
tical buyers.  Most  of  the  stock  to  be  used  for  ordinary 
breeding  purposes,  whether  for  standard  stock,  for  eggs, 
or  for  the  table  at  maturity,  can  be  grown  in  good  quality 


COOPS   FOR   GROWING   CHICKS   ON  RECENTLY  CLEARED    LAND   AT  THE 
GOVERNMENT  POULTRY  FARM,  BELTSVILLE,   MD. 


60 


KOW  TO  FRED  POULTRY  FOR  ANY  PURPOSE  WITH  PROFIT 


on  a  range  that  affords  exercise,  and  the  sun  and  shade 
as  desirable,  though  it  affords  little  feed.  Even  with  the 
lack  of  feed  from  the  land,  freedom  to  move  about,  the 
absence  of  restrictions,  the  opportunity  to  seek  out  the 
most  comfortable  places  at  different  times,  and  the  better 
sanitary  condition  of  the  land  make  for  the  growth  of 
much  better  stock  on  poor  range  than  in  small  yards. 

In  growing  chickens  for  breeding  purposes  the  aim 
should  always  be  to  get  approximately  standard  size  and 
weight  at  the  age  at  which  the  breed  should  mature.  In 
growing  chickens  for  market  or  for  egg  production  only, 
it  does  not,  as  a  rule,  make  so  much  difference  about 
getting  full  development,  and  it  may  be  fore  profitable, 
through  the  economy  in  labor  and  equipment,  to  use 
methods  by  which  a  greater  number  of  birds  are  grown 
to  the  development  that  suits  their 
use  as  layers  or  for  the  table  at  less 
cost  than  when  they  are  handled  to 
secure  the  best  individual  develop- 
ment. In  general,  to  secure  the  highest 
individual  development  it  is  necessary 
to  keep  chickens  in  quite  small  flocks. 
One  of  the  principal  reasons  why  so 
few  who  try  them  are  able  to  grow 
Asiatic  fowls  to  full  standard  size  is 
that  to  do  this  at  all  uniformly  they 
must  be  kept  in  small  flocks,  not  more 
than  twenty-five  or  thirty  together. 
When  they  are  grown  on  a  large  scale 
for  market  and  kept  in  flocks  of  from 
fifty  to  a  hundred  or  more  under  the 
conditions,  as  to  range,  which  usually 
exist  on  somewhat  intensive  commer- 
cial poultry  plants,  they  do  not  make 
full  development,  but  they  make  as 
large  chickens  as  the  market  requires, 
and  they  are  grown  more  economically, 
— that  is,  more  pounds  of  meat  are 
produced  at  less  cost,  than  when 
grown  to  get  the  best  individual  de- 
velopment possible. 


Similarly,  in  growing  pullets  for  egg 
production  only,  pullets  that  are  from 
standard-weight  stock  and  are  them-  NEAR  VIEW  OP 
selves  a  pound  or  so  under  weight, 
may  lay  as  many  eggs  and  as  large  eggs  as  their  sisters  of 
full  weight  or  over.  And  a  hundred  of  the  pullets  slightly 
undersize  might  be  grown  in  the  same  quarters  and  with 
no  more  attention  than  would  be  required  to  bring  froin 
half  to  two-thirds  of  that  number  to  full  development. 
That  means  that  1000  pullets  for  laying  only  can  be  grown 
from  weaning  age  at  the  same  cost  for  everything  but 
feed,  as  about  600  pullets  for  breeding  purposes. 

So  when  the  chickens  are  weaned  it  is  policy,  espe- 
cially for  those  who  are  limited  as  to  land,  room,  and 
equipment,  to  separate  them  according  to  the  purpose 
for  which  they  are  to  be  used.  Those  that  are  to  produce 
future  generations  should  be  given  the  care  that  will  make 
for  the  best  individual  development,  and  the  others, — ac- 
cording to  the  use  to  which  they  are  to  be  put — should 
have  conditions,  care,  and  feed  that  will  make  them  most 
profitable.  This  assortment  of  chicks  ought  to  be  made 
wherever  the  number  grown  is  large  enough  to  use  more 
than  one  roosting  coop  for  chicks  weaned  at  about  the 
same  time.  Many  poultry  keepers  with  comparatively 
small  flocks  neglect  to  do  it,  thinking  that  it  is  just  as 
well  -to  let  all  grow  together  and  separate  at  maturity 


those  that  are  desirable  as  breeders.  The  objection  to 
this  practice,  where  chicks  are  at  all  crowded  or  restricted 
tor  range,  is  that  the  most  promising  chicks  for  breeders 
are  not  given  the  best  chance  to  develop,  but  are  only 
allowed  to  show  the  best  they  can  do  under  conditions 
less  favorable  than  could  have  been  provided  for  them 
with  a  little  effort  on  the  part  of  the  keeper. 

While,  as  has  been  said,  good  work  with  chicks  often 
gives  good  chickens  under  rather  unfavorable  conditions, 
the  poultry  keeper  ought  not  to  take  the  chances  of  that 
any  farther  than  is  necessary  or  plainly  profitable — as 
when  birds  that  are  not  the  best  in  actual  quality  are 
yet  good  enough  for  a  particular  purpose.  And  above  all 
he  should  make  every  effort  to  give  birds  he  wishes  to 
breed  from,  the  best  conditions  that  his  circumstances 


ONE  OF  THE  COOPS  IN  SCENE  ON  THE   OPPOSITE  PAGE 

permit.  Failure  to  do  this  hastens  the  deterioration  of 
stock  which  commonly  takes  place  whenever  the  meth- 
ods or  the  conditions  are  against  full  development  of  in- 
dividual specimens.  At  best  it  is  hard  to  grow  breeding 
stock  year  after  year  without  good  range,  and  continue 
to  keep  up  the  size  and  stamina.  The  first  generation  of 
chicks  grown  in  confinement  from  stock  that  was  pre- 
viously range  grown,  is  often  as  good  or  better  than  the 
parent  stock.  With  good  feeding  in  confinement,  and 
plenty  of  room  in  the  house,  the  birds  so  raised  may  be 
larger  than  their  parents,  and  the  hens  probably  will  be 
as  good  or  better  layers. 

But  when  this  stock  is  bred  from,  it  will  nearly  al- 
ways appear  that  it  lacks  something  of  the  vitality  of  its 
ancestors,  and  if  it  is  bred  year  after  year  without  bring- 
ing in  the  blood  of  stock  grown  under  more  natural  and 
favorable  conditions  it  soon  becomes  greatly  deteriorated. 
Because  this  deterioration  is  not  much  in  evidence  until 
the  second  generation  grown  under  conditions  not  favor- 
able to  full  individual  development,  many  novices  grow- 
ing stock  under  such  conditions  are  misled.  They  sup- 
pose that  the  fact  that  they  grew  the  stock  apparently  as 


FEEDING  CHICKS  FROM  WEANING  TO  MATURITY 


61 


well  as  it  could  possibly  be  grown  under  certain  condi- 
tions one  year  is  positive  proof  that  the  conditions  are  in 
no  way  unfavorable,  and  believing  that  the  conditions  are 
all  right,  and  that  the  stock — as  shown  by  its  develop- 
ment in  the  first  season — is  all  right,  they  take  it  for 
granted  that  if  the  chickens  do  not  thrive,  and  fall  far 
short  of  the  expected  development,  the  trouble  must  be 
with  the  feed.  If  they  have  been  mixing  the  feeds  them- 
selves they  suppose  that  one  or  more  ingredients  are  of 
inferior  quality,  and  perhaps  detrimental.  Usually  they 
blame  the  meat  scrap.  If  they  have  been  buying  a  pre- 
pared feed  they  become  positive  that  the  manufacturer  is 
putting  out  an  inferior  article.  They  begin  to  try  other 
feeds  in  a  search  for  one  that  will  do  the  impossible.  Na- 
turally they  do  not  find  one. 

Thousands  of  poultry  keepers  are  never  able  to 
establish  a  satisfactory  stock  because  they  do  not  take 
the  trouble  to  pick  out  the  best  of  their  chicks  at  wean- 
ing age  and  either  give  them  conditions  under  which  they 
will  make  their  best  possible  development  on  the  same 
ration  that  the  rest  of  the  chicks  get,  or  give  them  the 
special  care  and  feeding  that  will  give  the  best  develop- 
ment under  the  conditions  under  which  all  chicks  are  kept. 
It  cannot  be  expected  that  the  stock  birds,  as  they  are 
grown  on  plants  which  have  to  grow  them  under  some- 
what intensive  conditions,  can  be  kept  to  a  development 
and  vitality  that  is  so  good  that  there  is  no  occasion  for 
frequent  introductions  of  stock  grown  under  more  favor- 
able conditions;  but,  by  growing  as  many  birds  as  he 
needs  for  breeding  purposes  under  the  best  conditions 
he  can  give  them,  a  poultry  keeper  who  is  limited  for 
room  keeps  his  breeding  stock  where  a  little  new  blood 
occasionally  will  prevent  any  marked  deterioration. 

We  have  then  to  consider  the  following  classifications 
of  chickens  at  weaning  time  in  their  relation  to  subse- 
quent feeding  practice: — 

A — Chickens  that  are  to  be  used  for  exhibition  or 
for  sale  in  exhibition  quality,  and  which  must  be  as  free 
from  every  fault,  and  as  superior  in  every  quality  as 
it  is  possible  to  make  them. 

B — Chickens  that  are  to  be  used  for  minor  exhibi- 
tions or  breeding  ordinary  standard  specimens,  and 
which  must  be  well  developed  and  vigorous,  but  not 
necessarily  free  from  the  superficial  faults  which  may  re- 
sult from  failure  to  apply  the  highest  skill  in  feeding  or 
to  supply  the  environment  most  favorable  to  development. 

C — Chickens  that  are  to  be  grown  for  layers,  and 
which  may  without  prejudice  to  their  value  for  that  pur- 
pose be  somewhat  below  the  standard  size  and  weight 
for  their  breed. 

D — Chickens  that  are  to  be  used  for  the  table,  either 
as  broilers,  fryers,  or  roasters,  and  in  the  growing  of 
which  the  development  of  constitution  and  stamina  need 
not  be  considered  at  all,  farther  than  that  they  must  have 
constitution  and  digestive  power  enough  to  keep  them 
growing  well  with  heavy  feeding  for  the  period  required 
in  any  particular  case. 

E — Chickens  that  at  weaning  age  are  plainly  not 
profitable  feeders  for  any  of  the  above  purposes. 

It  is  not  necessary  in  practice  to  make  all  these  divi- 
sions at  this  stage.  Class  A  may  be  considered  as  a 
special  class  which  ordinarily  would  not  be  divided  ex- 
cept perhaps  by  sex,  for  being  from  stock  carefully  select- 
ed for  quality  for  many  generations  only  a  small  per- 


centage— the  marked  culls — will  be  birds  that  ought  not 
to  have  the  best  possible  conditions  of  growth.  These 
the  wise  breeder  simply  shuts  in  a  small  pen  and  kills 
for  the  table  at  squab  broiler  size. 

In  the  ordinary  conditions  where  upwards  of  a  few 
hundred  chicks  are  grown,  chickens  as  classified  above  in 
B  and  C,  and  also  those  as  of  Class  D  which  are  intended 
for  large  roasters  may  be  carried  along  together  for  a 
while  if  it  is  more  convenient.  This  may  be  the  case 
where  chickens  are  to  range  on  grass  land  after  a  first 
crop  of  hay  is  cut,  or  in  corn  after  it  is  well  started,  or 
on  any  piece  of  land  not  available  for  them  at  the  time 
they  are  weaned.  The  capacity  of  any  house  or  coop  for 
them  at  this  age  is  of  course  much  greater  than  when  they 
are  a  month  to  six  weeks  older — to  say  nothing  of  when 
they  approach  maturity.  Hence,  if  provision  is  made  for 
the  removal  of  a  part  of  the  stock  to  other  quarters  be- 
fore the  coops  become  overcrowded,  there  is  no  objec- 
tion to  carrying  chicks  for  stock  birds,  for  layers,  and  for 
roasters  all  together  as  long  as  is  convenient. 

The  feeding  can  be  the  same  for  all.  The  risk  in  it  is 
that  if  hot  weather  comes  sooner  than  expected,  or  if 
anything  delays  the  division  of  the  flock  before  it  begins 
actually  to  crowd  the  capacity  of  the  coop,  overheating 
and  crowding  for  even  a  single  night  may  make  quite  a . 
severe  check  on  the  growth  of  the  entire  number.  It  is 
always  best,  when  it  can  be  done,  to  put  chicks  at  wean- 
ing age  into  colony  coops  in  the  numbers  that  the  coops 
will  accommodate  until  full  grown.  Then  if  the  coops 
are  of  suitable  construction  and  properly  ventilated,  there 
is  no  occasion  to  worry  about  possible  overcrowding.  At 
the  same  time,  with  due  care  to  provide  for  such  emerg- 
encies if  they  arise,  and  to  make  the  division  anyway 
comparatively  early  in  this  period,  a  poultry  keeper  can 
often  save  a  good  deal  of  work  with  his  chicks  and  han- 
dle some  other  work  on  his  plant  to  better  advantage,  by 
using  the  full  capacity  of  his  most  convenient  coops  and 
range  for  chicks  for  a  month  or  more  after  they  go  into 
the  colony  roosting  coops. 

Chickens  that  are  to  be  used  for  broilers  or  fryers 
can  be  kept  in  coops  with  small  yards  or  in  open  sheds. 
Some  may  be  ready  for  small  broilers,  and  any  should  be 
able  to  make  broiler  weights  with  heavy  feeding  before  it 
affects  their  digestive  organs.  They  need  no  more  exer- 
c'se  than  a  little  scratching  for  grain  in  litter  to  keep 
them  contented.  Those  that  are  to  be  kept  longest,  as 
for  fryers,  can  either  be  given  a  little  more  room  and 
range,  or  fed  more  liberally  with  green  feed  until  the 
time  comes  to  finish  them  off. 

Rations  For  Chickens  From  Weaning  to  Maturity 

The  following  rations  are  principally  rations  corres- 
ponding to  and  following  those  given  for  younger  chick- 
ens in  the  preceding  chapter.  Fully  to  identify  each  it  is 
not  only  given  the  same  title,  but  the  same  number — with 
the  addition  of  the  letter  A. 

Ration   No.   la — Model   Variety  Ration  Recommended   By  the 
United    States   Department   of   Agriculture 

SCRATCH   MIXTURE 

Two  parts,  by  weight,  of  cracked  corn  and  one  of  wheat; 
or,  equal  parts  cracked  com,  wheat,  and  oats.  This  may  be 
fed  at  intervals  by  hand,  or  if  the  chicks  have  good  range 
it  may  be  kept  before  them  in  a  hopper. 

DRY   MASH 

Bran  2  pounds 

Middlings  2  pounds 

Corn  meal  1   pound 

Red  dog,  or  low  grade  flour 1   pound 

Meat    scrap    %    pound 

This  should  be  kept  before  the  chicks  in  hoppers.  If 
preferred  the  meat  scrap  may  be  left  out  of  the  mash  and 


62 


HOW  TO  FEED  POULTRY  FOR  ANY  PURPOSE  WITH  PROFIT 


given  in  a  separate  hopper.  Where  milk  is  available  the 
chickens  should  have  all  they  will  drink.  Keep  charcoal, 
grit,  and  shell  before  the  chicks  at  all  times,  and  when  they 
are  confined  to  small  yards,  or  have  limited  range,  feed  lib- 
erally of  green  feed, 

Ration   No.  2a — Ontario   Agricultural   College   Ration 

Chicks  are  taken  from  the  brooders  at  from  six  to  eight 
weeks  according  to  the  weather.  From  about  eight  weeks 
they  are  fed  usually  three  times  a  day,  a  mash  as  previously 
given  in  the  morning,  and  whole  wheat  and  cracked  corn 
at  noon  and  night.  If  it  is  desired  to  force  growth,  two 
feeds  of  mash  are  given  daily,  and  the  amount  of  animal 
meal  in  the  mash  is  increased. 

Ration  No.  3a — Cornell  Ration  for  Chicks 

Feed  in  hoppers  the  mash  mixture  No.  3  given  for  small 
chicks,  and  equal  parts  of  wheat  and  cracked  corn.  If  it  is 
desired  to  hasten  development,  give  one  meal  a  day  of  moist 
mash.  Provide  grit,  charcoal,  shell,  and  bone.  Give  grass 
range  or  plenty  of  green  feed. 

Ration  No.  4a — New  Jersey  Experiment  Station  Ration 

Keep  the  dry  mash  before  the  chicks  all  the  time,  and 
twice  a  day  scatter  over  their  range  a  grain  feed  of  equal 
parts  of  whole  wheat  and  cracked  corn. 

Ration    No.   5a — Ohio    Agricultural    Col- 
lege Ration 

Omit  the  noon  feed  of  grain  pre- 
viously given,  and  put  in  a  hopper  of 
the  mash  mixture.  Keep  this  open  for 
an  hour  at  noon.  After  the  tenth 
week  omit  the  morning  feed  of  grain 
and  keep  the  hopper  open  until  noon. 
From  -this  time  give  chicks  only  one 
feed  of  grain  a  day — late  in  the  after- 
noon. 

Ration  No.  6a — Massachusetts  Agricult- 
ural College  Ration 

Keep  the  dry  mash  always  before  the 
chicks  in  hoppers,  and  feed  night  and 
morning  what  wheat  and  cracked  corn 
the  birds  will  eat  readily.  Do  not  feed 
so  much  that  they  will  not  forage. 

Ration   No.   "a — Maine   Experiment   Sta- 
tion Ration 

Keep  the  dry  mash  before  the  chicks 
in  hoppers,  and  feed  in  litter,  twice  a 
day,  equal  parts  of  good  cracked  corn 
and  whole  wheat. 

Or,  keep  in  separate  slatted  troughs 
cracked  corn,  wheat,  meat  scrap, 
cracked  bone,  oyster  shell,  and  grit, 
and  let  the  chicks  eat  at  will. 

Ration   No.   8a — Wisconsin    Experi- 
ment   Station   Ration 


Ration  No.  17a — Oregon   Agricultural  College  Ration 

Continue  the  ration  given  for  small  chicks  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  brooding  period. 

Ration    No.   18a — Washington   Agricultural    College    Ration 

Feed  the  grain  mixture  with  coarser  grains  substituted 
for  the  fine,  three  times  a  day.  Keep  dry  mash  in  hop- 
pers. Give  unstinted  supply  of  succulent  green  feed. 

Ration  No.  19a — California  Experiment  Station  Ration 

Same  as  during  latter  part  of  brooding  period. 

Ration   No.   20a — Kansas   Experiment   Station   Ration 

Same   as   during  the  latter  part  of  the  brooding  period. 

Ration  No.  21a — Henry  D.  Smith's  Ration 

Cracked  corn  and  meat  scrap  in  separate  hoppers,  cab- 
bage, mangels,  or  green  rye.  It  should  be  said  that  this 
ration  was  used  for  winter  chickens,  that  is  chickens 
hatched  in  the  late  summer  and  early  fall,  and  making  their 
growth  from  weaning  to  maturity  in  winter,  not  in  summer. 

Ration  No.  22a  to  26a 

Same  as  during  the  latter  part   of  the   brooding  period. 


Give  to  chicks  on  range,  in  hoppers, 
a  mash  of  two  parts  each  of  bran  and 
corn  meal,  and  one  part  of  middlings. 

For  grain  feed  cracked  corn,  or  when  barley  is  low  enough 
in  price  feed  some  of  it.  Feed  grain  either  broadcast  or 
in  hoppers,  according  to  circumstances.  Where  sparrows 
are  numerous  there  is  less  loss  by  feeding  in  hoppers. 

Ration  No.  9a — Minnesota   Experiment    Station    Ration 

Put  chicks  on  free  range  and  feed  from  hoppers  large 
enough  to  hold  a  week's  supply,  a  hopper  of  cracked  corn 
and  small  grains,  and  one  of  the  dry  mash  for  each  colony 
of  chicks. 

Ration   No.   lOa — Purdue   Experiment   Station   Ration 

Put  the  chicks  on  grass  range  and  feed  in  outdoor  hop- 
pers large  enough  to  contain  two  or  three  weeks'  supply; 
one  hopper  of  mash,  and  one  of  whole  wheat  and  cracked 
corn  to  each  house. 

Ration    No.    lla — Oklahoma    Experiment    Station    Ration 

With  the  dry  mash  supplied  in  hoppers  give  twice  a  day 
equal  parts  of  wheat,  cracked  corn,  and  kaflr  corn;  or,  two 
parts  cracked  corn,  two  parts  wheat,  one  part  oats. 

Ration    No.    12a — Missouri    University    Ration 

The  same  as  followed  from  the  time  the  chicks  are 
three  or  four  weeks  old. 

Ration    No.    13a — Manitoba    Agricultural    College    Ration 

After  the  chicks  are  six  weeks  old  put  their  dry  mash 
and  grain  in  a  two  compartment  outdoor  hopper,  and  give 
them  free  range. 

Ration   No.    I  la — Michigan   Experiment    Station    Ration 

Continue  the  dry  mash  in  hoppers,  and  feed  wheat  and 
cracked  corn,  either  in  hoppers  or  scattered  on  the  range. 

Ration    No.   15a — North    Carolina   Experiment    Station   Ration 

Feed  chicks  on  range  the  same  as  old  stock — mash  of 
wheat  bran,  corn  meal,  and  ground  oats;  grain  feed,  cracked 
corn,  wheat,  and  oats. 

Ration    No.    16a — Montana    Experiment    Station   Ration 

With  the  dry  mash  used  for  chicks  when  younger  feed 
a  grain  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  wheat,  oats,  and  cracked 
peas,  by  measure. 


COOPS  FOR  GROWING  CHICKS  AT  EDGE  OF  APPLE  ORCHARD  ON  A 
NEW  ENGLAND  FARM 


It  will  be  noted  that  there  is  even  more  apparent 
similarity  in  rations  as  used  and  recommended  by  differ- 
ent institutions  and  practical  experts  for  chicks  during 
this  period,  than  during  the  earlier  brooding  period.  There 
is,  in  fact,  a  sameness  and  a  simplicity  of  statement  that 
tends  to  be  misleading,  giving  the  impression  that  the 
chickens  may  be  left  much  to  themselves  after  they  have 
passed  the  weaning  age.  It  is  true  that  when  the  matter 
of  keeping  them  warm  no  longer  requires  special  attention, 
the  routine  work  of  caring  for  them  is  much  reduced, 
and  that  the  task  is  still  further  lightened  when  circum- 
stances admit  of  hopper  feeding  of  both  the  mash  and 
the  grain.  Yet  it  is  rarely  practical  to  put  feeding  wholly 
on  a  system  that  is  entirely  automatic, — feeding  the  grain 
products  in  bulk,  letting  the  chicks  eat  of  them  at  will, 
and  leaving  them  to  get  all  the  feed  accessories  from  the 
range.  That  can  be  done  only  where  the  range  is  un- 
usually good,  where  the  temperature  is  constantly  moder- 
ate, where  there  are  no  enemies  of  any  kind  to  molest  the 
chicks,  and  where  the  utilization  of  waste  feeds  not  on  the 
range  used  by  the  chicks  does  not  have  to  be  considered. 

Usually  one  or  more  of  the  considerations  mentioned 
make  it  necessary  to  modify  more  or  less  the  plan  of 
hopper  feeding,  and  notwithstanding  the  advantages  of 
that  practice,  and  the  economy  of  using  it,  the  fact  re- 
mains that  a  certain  amount  of  personal  attention  to 
feeding,  and  the  existence  in  a  flock  of  poultry  of  a  sense 
of  dependence  upon  and  confidence  in  the  person  who 
feeds  them,  make  for  better  results  than  when  the  rela- 


63 


tion  between  the  feeder  and  the  fed  is  one  that  the  latter 
•do  not  recognize.  A  poultry  keeper  has  to  keep  close 
watch  over  all  his  stock  to  KNOW  whether  things  are 
going  right  or  not,  and  that  being  the  case",  it  is  no  hard- 
ship, and  is  in  various  ways  an  advantage,  to  supplement 
the  hopper  feeding  with  some  light  regular  feeds,  and  also 
with  occasional  special  feeds  as  conditions  may  make 
that  advisable.  The  two  points  in  feeding  that  call  for 
special  attention  in  summer  are  assurance  of  supplies  of 
green  feed  and  animal  feed,  and  special  feeding  to  main- 
tain growth  as  well  as  possible  in  extreme  hot  weather. 

Whatever  the  object  in  growing  chickens,  the  best 
results  are  secured  only  when  they  grow  steadily  from 
start  to  finish.  In  the  cool  weather  of  winter  and  spring 
we  have  to  keep  young  chickens  warm  that  their  vital 
processes  may  proceed  legularly  and  as  economically  of 
feed  as  possible.  In  the  warm  weather  of  spring,  and  the 
moderate  weather  of  summer,  the  temperature  conditions 
^re  most  favorable  to  rapid  and  continuous  growth.  With 
an  average  atmospheiic  temperature  of  sixty  to  seventy, 
-and  the  heat-producing  elements  in  the  feed  called  upon 
to  keep  the  body  temperature  of  the  bird  about  thirty-five 
to  forty-five  degrees  higher,  and  the  same  elements  also 
providing  the  energy  for  an  active  life,  the  bird  can  utilize 
a  lot  of  carbonaceous  material.  But  when  the  atmospheric 
temperature  goes  to  ninety,  or  a  hundred  or  more,  and  re- 
mains there  for  days  at  a  time,  the  carbonaceous  material 
in  the  ordinary  daily  ration  is  far  in  excess  of  the  needs  of 
the  system,  and  if  the  bird  eats  the  usual  amount  it  over- 
heats the  body. 

'If  growing  chickens  are  left  to  themselves  to  eat 
what  they  choose  of  the  grain  and  mash  before  them,  and 
to  supplement  this  with  such  green  feed  as  their  range 
affords,  they  usually — unless  the  range  affords  an  extra- 
ordinary amount  of  highly  palatable  green  feed — either 
injure  themselves  by  overeating  of  the  heavy  grain  ration, 
or  by  declining  to  eat  much  of  it,  consume  so  little  feed 
that  they  may  stop  growing,  and  even  lose  weight.  Hearty 
chickens  are  apt  to  overeat  until  the  excess  of  heating 
feed  makes  them  uncomfortable  and  they  lose  appetite, 
and  perhaps  develop  mild  symptoms  of  digestive  trouble. 
Chicks  that  are  daintier  feeders  are  more  likely  to  cut 


)N  A  GRASSY  RANGE 


their  ration  to  what  green  feed  and  insects  and  worms 
they  can  get  without  much  effort  in  the  coolest  parts  of 
the  day,  with  an  occasional  nibble  at  the  grain  and  mash 
accessible  as  they  forage. 

It  is  at  such  times  that  the  value  of  milk  and  the  ad- 
vantage of  liberal  supplies  of  succulent  green  feed  that  the 
chicks  will  eat  freely  are  most  fully  demonstrated.  In 
continued  extreme  hot  spells  we  cannot  by  any  system  of 
feeding  keep  up  the  growth  that  is  obtained  under  nor- 


ceptible  check  of  growth,  and  for  longer  periods  we  can — 
by  the  same  methods — keep  up  a  constant  growth  at  less 
than  the  normal  rate,  and  at  the  same  time  keep  the  birds 
in  such  good  appetite  and  physical  condition,  that  as  soon 
as  relief  from  the  extreme  temperature  comes  they  eat 
full  rations — not  requiring  several  days,  or  a  week  or 
more  to  recover  from  the  effects  of  the  hot  weather. 

Where  chicks  on  range  are  fed  in  hoppers,  they 
should  get  out  with  the  beginning  of  daylight,  even 
though  it  may  have  been  customary  for  the  attendant — 
for  his  own  convenience — and  their  safety — to  keep  them 
shut  in  the  coop  until  a  later  hour.  That  is  not  really 
good  poultry  practice  at  any  time,  though  in  normal 
weather  when  the  chicks  are  eating  heartily  it  may  not 
make  such  a  great  deal  of  difference  if  they  don't  get  out 
as  early  as  they  would  like  to  in  the  morning.  But  in 
extreme  hot  weather  they  should  be  out  at  daylight,  and 
if  the  danger  from  their  enemies  that  prowl  at  that  time 
is  such  that  they  should  be  watched,  someone  should 
watch  them  as  long  as  necessary. 

If  the  range  is  good,  the  chicks  released  in  the  earliest 
morning  probably  will  pay  little  attention  to  the  feed  in 
the  hoppers,  but  will  begin  at  once  to  forage  for  the 
worms  which  are  likely  to  be  at  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
and  for  whatever  green  feed  takes  their  fancy.  They  will 
keep  busy  in  this  way  until  the  sun  becomes  uncomfort- 
ably warm,  or  until  with  crops  fairly  well  filled  with  light 
feed  they  feel  like  filling  up  with  grain.  If  the  grain  is 
usually  fed  by  hand  it  is  a  good  plan,  when  the  chicks  are 
let  out,  to  scatter  a  feed  of  it  about — a  lighter  feed  than 
usual.  The  amount  they  will  eat  before  and  after  foraging 
will  depend  on  circumstances.  An  expert  feeder  can  tell 
by  the  way  they  go  at  it  about  how  much  to  throw  out 
and  have  it  eaten  quite  early  in  the  morning.  It  is  a  good 
plan  to  broadcast  this  feed  over  the  range;  then  the 
chickens  eat  a  little  grain  with  the  other  things  as  they  go. 
About  nine  o'clock  give  the  chickens  all  they  will  eat 
up  clean  of  a  light  mash, — that  is  a  mash  containing  little 
corn  meal  or  concentrated  feed.  After  eating  this  they 
will  usually  prefer  to  keep  quiet  in  the  shade  until  the 
heat  of  the  day  has  passed.  About  noon  they  will  relish 
something  quite  light  and  cooling,  as  clabber  milk,  lettuce, 
rape,  or  cabbage,  and— in  the  latter 
part  of  the  season — waste  tomatoes, 
cucumbers,  fruit  and  melons  of  all 
kinds.  If  it  is  desired,  the  sour  milk 
may  be  thickened  with  bran  and  mid- 
lings,  or  soft  fruits  and  vegetables 
may  be  used  the  same  way.  When 
fresh  lettuce  or  rape  is  given  rare 
should  be  taken  to  put  it  in  the  shade, 
not  only  because  the  chickens  are 
reluctant  to  go  into  the  hot  sun,  but 
because  if  these  things  are  not  eaten 
up  at  once  they  will  wilt  badly  in  the 
heat  and  then  the  chickens  will  not 
eat  them  at  all,  and  they  are  wasted. 

If  the  chickens  are  indifferent  to  green  feed  offered  them 
at  noon  it  is  as  well  to  feed  it  early  in  the  morning  or 
later  in  the  evening.  Often  they  will  eat  it  greedily  when 
the  heat  of  the  day  has  passed  and  they  begin  to  feel 
hungry  and  like  moving  about. 

As  the  sun  declines  and  the  heat  is  less  intense,  the 
chickens  will  begin  to  feed  and  forage,  and  are  likely  to 
stay  out  much  longer  than  when  they  feed  freely  at  all 
hours  of  the  day.  They  should  be  allowed  to  stay  out  as 


mal  temperate  weather  conditions  on  a  normal  consump-  late  as  they  like,  and  if  they  do  not  seem  to  care  for  their 
tion  of  ordinary  concentrated  rations.  But  for  short  peri-  ordinary  rations,  light  mashes  should  be  offered  them, 
ods  of  extreme  heat  we  can  feed  so  that  there  is  no  per-  and  they  should  have  all  the  milk,  either  separate  or 


64 


HOW  TO  FEED  POULTRY  FOR  ANY  PURPOSE  WITH  PROFIT 


thickened  with  bran,  that  they  will  eat.  They  may  not 
eat  as  much  in  all  as  they  ordinarily  do,  but  they  do  not 
need  quite  as  much,  and  if  they  eat  fairly  well  of  light 
fe*ds  and  take  about  half  the  usual  amount  of  grain  in 
one  way  or  another,  they  will  keep  growing. 

The  question  of  providing  a  plentiful  supply  of  suc- 
culent feed,  not  only  for  hot  spells  but  for  possible 
periods  of  drouth,  is  one  that  the  wise  poultry  keeper  con- 
siders at  planting  time  in  the  spring.  It  rarely  is  safe  to 
rely  entirely  upon  the  green  feed  on  a  range  to  supply 
the  needs  of  a  large  stock  of  chicks  for  this  class  of  feedrf. 
The  modification  of  rations  for  hot  spells  ought  atso  to 
be  a  matter  of  forethought  with  the  poultry  keeper,  and 
especially  so  when  his  ration  generally  carries  a  minimum 
of  the  feeds  most  necessary  in  hot 
weather.  Chickens  that  always  have 
plenty  of  milk  and  green  feed  before 
them  will  balance  their  own  rations, 
but  comparatively  few  chickens  ex- 
cept moderate-sized  flocks  on  general 
farms  are  so  supplied.  Most  growing 
chickens  elsewhere  get  only  enough 
of  green  feed  or  of  milk,  or  of  both 
together  to  keep  them  in  fair  condi- 
tion with  a  heavy  grain  ration  in  tem- 
perate weather. 

A  large  proportion  of  flocks  of 
growing  chickens  are  in  places  where, 
both  in  their  coops  or  houses,  and  in 
the  yard  or  on  the  ground  near  and 
around  it,  the  air  simply  stagnates  in 
a  hot  spell.  The  circulation  of  air  is 
none  too  good  in  ordinary  still 
weather,  but  when  the  atmosphere 
generally  is  almost  motionless  and 
very  warm  there  is  no  circulation  in 
these  places  at  all.  Coops  and  houses 

should  be  designed  to  afford  the  best  possible  ventilation 
in  extreme  hot  weather,  even  though  there  may  not  be 
occasion  to  use  it  fully  except  at  long  intervals.  With  this 
provision  to  make  the  chickens  as  comfortable  as  possible 
when  the  weather  is  hot,  the  poultry  keeper  ought  to 
keep  an  eye  constantly  on  the  weather  and  try  to  antici- 
pate weather  changes  which  make  modifications  of  rations 
expedient.  On  the  occasional  hot  days  in  spring  and  early 
summer  he  should  feed  light  and  give  as  much  vegetables 
and  milk  as  possible  at  the  hottest  parts  of  the  day.  He 
should  learn  to  know  what  the  chickens  relish  best  under 
different  conditions,  and  to  judge  at  once  by  the  appetite 
they  show  whether  a  feed  offered  them  is  one  that  they 
want  and  will  eat  freely,  and  to  judge  also  how  far  a 
manifest  lack  of  inclination  to  eat  at  a  regular  time  is  due 
to  want  of  relish  for  what  is  offered,  and  how  far  it  may 
reasonably  be  attributed  to  lack  of  appetite  for  any  feed — 
as  a  result  of  continuous  hearty  feeding. 

It  is  this  habit  of  observation — the  cultivation  of 
sound  judgment  as  to  'the  attitudes  of  poultry  toward 
feed  under  different  conditions  and  the  development  of 
skill  in  catering  to  the  appetites  of  the  birds,  at  the  same 
time  keeping  them  keen  for  their  meals  and  ready  to  take 
square  meals  of  almost  anything  in  the  feed  line  that  is 
at  all  appropriate  to  conditions  at  the  time  of  giving  it, 
that  make  the  skillful,  practical  feeder.  That  part  of  his 
craft  cannot  be  learned  from  books,-  or  from  the  instruc- 
tion of  others,  but  comes  only  with  careful,  interested  ob- 
servation and  experience  in  discovering  and  correcting  his 
mistakes  in  feeding. 


How    Stock    Becomes    Adapted    to    Certain    Rations    and 
Conditions 

In  judging  the  effects  of  any  particular  feed  or  sys- 
tem of  feeding  upon  any  lot  of  chicks,  it  is  important  to 
take  into  consideration  the  constitutional  attitude  of  the 
flock  or  of  different  members  of  it  toward  that  feed  or 
system  of  feeding.  In  the  statements  about  rations  given 
out  by  various  authorities,  the  importance  of  making 
gradual  changes  in  rations  often  is  emphasized.  Poultry 
often  refuse  to  eat  much  of  a  feed  to  which  they  have  not 
been  accustomed,  and  often  those  that  eat  freely  of  a  new 
feed  immediately  develop  some  form  of  trouble  in  the  di- 
gestive tract.  But  individual  birds  differ  greatly  in  this 
respect,  and  where  a  stock  is  fed  year  after  year  in  just 


THE   LAST    BITE    BEFORE    GOING    TO    ROOST    IN    THE    EVENING 


the  same  way,  the  flock,  by  a  process  of  natural  selection, 
eventually  is  made  up  of  individuals  that  the  method  of 
feeding  suits.  The  others  do  not  thrive  and  are  gradually 
eliminated  from  the  flock. 

Beginners  in  poultry  keeping  usually  have  a  great 
deal  more  trouble  in  feeding  than  those  with  longer  ex- 
perience, not  merely  because  of  the  beginner's  lack  of 
experience  and  knowledge  of  feeding,  but  because  the 
stock  is  being  adjusted  and  adapted  to  a  new  diet — one  that 
perhaps  suits  a  part  of  it  better  than  that  to  which  its 
race  has  been  accustomed,  but  is  likely  to  be  more  or 
less  unsuited  to  another  part  of  it.  If — as  is  usually  the 
case — a  beginner's  stock  is  from  a  number  of  different 
flocks,  he  is  likely  to  get  uneven  results  the  first  year. 
The  next  year  the  results  will  be  more  uniform  because 
that  part  of  the  stock  to  which  the  ration  was  ill  adapted 
will  have  been  culled  out,  and  those  to  which  it  was  at 
first  not  particularly  well  adapted  will  generally  have  be- 
come accustomed  to  it. 

A  poultry  keeper  can  adapt  his  stock  to  almost  any 
ration  or  system  of  feeding  that  supplies  the  necessary 
nutritive  elements  with  reasonable  regularity,  or  he  can 
develop  a  stock  that  takes  kindly  only  to  rations  similar 
to  those  to  which  they  have  been  accustomed  and  that, 
to  give  best  results  either  in  growth  or  in  egg  production, 
has  to  be  humored  a  good  deal  in  the  matter  of  eating; 
or  he  can  develop  a  stock  that  will  eat  at  any  time  any- 
thing suitable  for  poultry  that  is  offered  it.  The  use  of 
rations  with  a  few  ingredients  and  rigid  adherence  to  the 
same  schedule  of  feeding  day  after  day  tends  to  make 
chickens  "fussy"  about  what  they  eat.  Chickens  may  be 


FEEDING  CHICKS  FROM  WEANING  TO  MATURITY 


65 


got  so  into  the  habit  of  eating  certain  things  at  certain 
times  that  until  starved  into  it  they  will  eat  at  any  par- 
ticular feeding  time  only  the  feed  they  have  been  ac- 
customed to  get  at  that  time.  Cases  of  this  kind  are  much 
more  rare  since  the  practice  of  keeping  feed  before  the 
chicks  in  hoppers  came  into  general  use,  but  there  are 
still  far  too  many  flocks  of  growing  chicks  that  are  never 
broken  to  take  good  feed  as  offered  to  them. 

By  giving  from  the  first  enough  variety  in  feeds  for 
the  chicks  to  learn  that  what  the  feeder  puts  before  them 
will  satisfy  their  appetites  and  that  nothing  else  is  to  be 
expected  until  it  is  gone,  chicks  are  soon  taught  to  eat 
readily  of  any  feed  offered  that  is  not  actually  unpalatable 
or  objectionable.  Also  by  changing  the  order  of  feeds 
given  at  different  times  through  the  day  they  are  trained 
;o  eat  anything  at  any  time.  Chickens  that  are  so  trained 
are  not  as  a  rule  subject  to  digestive  disorders  when 
changes  in  their  ration  are  made;  and  though  the  writer 
cannot  positively  affirm  that  it  is  so,  it  is  his  opinion  that 
by  varying  the  order  of  the  feeds  quite  frequently,  and 
avoiding  the  monotony  of  feeding  on  rigid  schedules,  feed- 
ing practice  is  adapted  to  a  much  larger  proportion  of 
chickens  generally.  In  other  words,  it  appears  to  him  that 
it  is  the  monotony  of  most  poultry -rations,  rather  than  the 
nature  of  any  of  their  ingredients  that  is  the  true  cause 
of  the  lack  of  what  may  be  called  energy  in  digestion 
which  causes  temporary  trouble  when  chickens  are  given 
an  unaccustomed  feed. 

There  is  no  inconsistency  between  .training  chicks  to 
eat  what  (proper)  feed  is  set  before  them,  and  catering  to 
their  appetites  with  the  most  appropriate  feed  at  certain 
times.  On  the  contrary,  the  two  policies  are  complemen- 
tary. We  train  the  chicks  to  take  their  ordinary  rations 
freely  under  all  ordinary  circumstances;  and  on  the  other 
hand  we  give  particular  attention  to  furnishing  the  diet 
that  will  at  the  same  time  best  promote  growth  and  keep 
the  chicken  hearty  under  extraordinary  and  unfavorable 
conditions  for  development. 

Culling  and  Separating  Chicks  in  the  Growing  Period 

While  as  previously  stated  it  is  desirable  to  put  in 
one  coop  or  house  at  weaning  time  only  as  many  chickens 
as  can  be  carried  to  maturity  in  it,  this  ideal  condition  is 
found  so  seldom,  .that  further  separation  and  culling  of 
flocks  of  growing  chickens  is  almost  always  necessary.  In 
the  more  precocious  breeds,  of  which  the  Leghorn  is 
the  most  popular  representative,  it  is  best  to  separate 
the  pullets  and  cockerels  at  weaning  time,  but  in  the 
medium-sized  breeds 'they  may  be  kept  together  much 
longer, — until  three,  four,  or  five  months  of  age,  without 
the  cockerels  annoying  the  pullets. 

In  the  Asiatic  breeds,  and  the  larger  and  slower 
maturing  strains  of  the  general-purpose  type,  the  sexes 
may  be  kept  together  until  nearly  or  quite  full  grown 
without  the  young  males  annoying  the  females  at  all. 
Different  strains  vary  in  this  respect,  but  nearly  always 
Asiatic  males  of  stocks  that  grow  to  good  standard  size 
are  altogether  indifferent  to  the  females  until  they  ap- 
proach their  full  size  and  physical  development. 

Where  the  males  are  to  be  used  for  roasters,  and 
fattened  and  sold  for  that  purpose  just  before  they  begin 
to  show  sexual  proclivities  and  their  meat  would  become 
hard  and  staggy,  it  is  often  a  great  convenience  to  keep 
cockerels  and  pullets  together  up  to  the  time  that  the 
foimer  should  be  taken  out  for  fattening.  In  the  case  of 
early  chickens,  this  may  allow  running  the  sexes  together 
until  about  July  1st,  in  the  North,  and  then,  with  the 
cockerels  removed,  the  number  of  pullets  left  in  each 


lot  will  have  plenty  of  room  both  indoors  and  out  during 
the  remainder  of  the  growing  season. 

Similarly  where  pullets  and  cockerels  for  stock  birds 
have  been  kept  for  a  while  after  weaning  with  pullets  in- 
tended for  layers,  as  the  season  advances  and  the  growing 
chickens  begin  to  crowd  the  house,  those  of  one  class  can 
be  taken  from  it  to  other  quarters,  leaving  the  other  class 
to  occupy  it  the  remainder  of  the  season; — the  best  condi- 
tions being  given  to  the  stock  intended  for  breeding  pur- 
poses. Where  only  the  few  cockerels  a  poultry  keeper  re- 
serves for  his  own  breeding  are  kept,  it  is  often  a  good  plan 
to  give  them  a  fair-sized  yard  and  special  feeding,  that  the 
pullets — both  for  breeding  and  laying — may  have  all  the 
available  range  undisturbed.  Where  there  is  room  to  do 
so,  the  best  way  to  handle  the  cockerels  reserved  for 
breeding  is  in  colonies  so  far  away  from  all  other  stock 
that  they  do  not  come  in  contact  with  either  hens  or 
pullets  where  they  range. 

For  a  generation  past,  so  much  of  our  poultry  has 
been  grown  close  about  groups  of  farm  buildings,  or  on 
the  limited  ranges  of  rather  intensive  poultry  farms,  that 
it  is  not  generally  known  that  when  they  have  the  op- 
portunity to  do  so  cockerels  and  pullets  which  return  to 
the  same  coops  or  roosting  places  at  night  will  volun- 
tarily separate  and  go  to  different  ranges  during  the  day, 
showing  the  instinct  in  this  which  seems  to  be  common 
to  polygamous  birds  at  other  times  than  in  the  breeding 
season,  and  which  is  often  noted  in  turkeys.  This  point  is 
of  interest  because  it  shows  that  the  tendency  of  young 
cockerels  to  annoy  hens  and  pullets  is  due  to  the  ab- 
normal life  they  lead,  and  that  if  they  are  given  the  op- 
portunity to  range  where  there  is  an  abundance  of  the 
things  chickens  like,  to  be  secured  by  foraging,  they  will 
take  little  interest  in  anything  but  the  business  of  eating 
and  keeping  as  comfortable  as  possible.  This  applies  to 
cockerels  of  the  precocious  breeds  as  well  as  to  others. 
The  writer  has  seen  the  cockerels  and  pullets  in  a  flock 
of  nearly  a  hundred  growing  Leghorns  that  had  the 
range  of  some  six  or  seven  acres  of  land,  and  that  were 
fed  together  night  and  morning,  go  to  different  trees  to 
roost,  and  in  separate  bands  appropriate  each  its  part  of 
the  range  and  never  trespass  on  that  of  the  other  through- 
out the  whole  season. 

As  most  chickens  are  housed  during  the  period  of 
growth  in  rather  larger  numbers  than  is  consistent  with 
their  best  development,  culling  out  the  inferior  speci- 
mens as  fast  as  they  are  noted  as  distinctly  inferior,  or 
as  undesirable  to  carry  to  maturity,  is  one  of  the  most 
effective  ways  of  improving  conditions  for  those  that  re- 
main, and  thus  getting  the  greatest  possible  returns  on 
the  feed  that  they  consume  and  the  labor  expended  upon 
them.  There  is  no  greater  fallacy  in  regard  to  the  feeding 
of  growing  chickens  than  the  idea  that  the  way  to  avoid 
loss  on  unthrifty  chickens  is  to  carry  them  along  with  the 
rest  until  maturity,  and  try  tojmake  as  much  as  possible  of 
them.  The  common  impression  is  that  unthrifty  and 
undersized  chickens  are  light  feeders,  and  that  if  they 
have  not  grown  as  much  in  a  given  time  as  their  more 
thrifty  companions,  neither  have  they  cost  as  much.  The 
fact  is  that  the  unthrifty  chickens  consume  far  more  feed 
to  make  a  pound  of  weight  than  the  others.  They  are 
unthrifty  because  they  have  not  strong  vitality  and  good 
digestion,  and  a  large  part  of  what  they  consume  passes 
through  them  undigested. 

It  does  not  pay  to  keep  an  unthrifty  chicken  after 
that  characteristic  is  noted.  It  should  be  eaten  or  sold 
for  whatever  it  will  bring.  It  simply  cannot  convert  feed 
into  poultry  meat  at  a  profit,  and  the  longer  the  owner 


HOW  TO  FEED  POULTRY  FOR  ANY  PURPOSE  WITH  PROFIT 


THE    SAME    DATA    IN    DIFFERENT    FORM — EASIER 
TO  APPLY 


Transposing1  the  results  in  the  above  table,  stating  the 
age  in  weeks,  and  the  weights  which  chickens  of  the  sev- 
eral kinds  should  make  at  that  age. 


keeps  it  the  more  he  loses  on  it.  The  general  tendency 
in  poultry  growing  is  to  do  the  culling  at  stated  periods. 
Most  poultry  growers  will  throw  out  the  cripples  and 
a  few  conspicuously  feeble  chickens  when  taking  them 

,     .-  .  White  Plymouth  Rocks  Should  Weigh 

from  the  nest  or  incubator;  cull  out  the  unthrifty  speci-      BOTH  SEXES: 

metis  at  weaning  age   (and  try  to  fatten  them   for  broil-  At    8  weeks  1  pound 

r  r    ,,  ,,  At  11  weeks  2  pounds 

ers);   and   take   out   a   few   more   of  the   worst   when   the  At  14  weeks  3  pounds 

At  17  weeks  4   pounds 

flocks     go    into     winter     quarters.     Whenever    a     poultry  At  20  weeks  5  pounds 

grower,  noticing  a  chicken,  thinks — "  It  doesn't  look  very      COCKERELS: 

At     7  weeks  1   pound 

promising,   but  with  good   care  it  may  amount  to   some-  At  10  weeks  2  pounds 

At  13  weeks  - 3  pounds 

thing,"  the  best  thing  he  can  do  is  to  make  meat  of  it  At  15  weeks  4  pounds 

At  18  weeks  5  pounds 

with   the   least   possible   delay.     The   more   closely   be   ad-  At  20  weeks  6  pounds 

,.  ,     ,  .   .  ...   ,  At  24  weeks  7  pounds 

heres  to  this  policy,  the  more  good  chickens  he  will  have      PULLETS- 

at  'the    end    of   the    season,    and   the   less    they   will    have  At    8  weeks  1  pound 

,  •  /-\    *         i  r  rr      j        i_       j  r  At  12  weeks  .  ....2  pounds 

cost  him.     Only  where  a  farm  range  affords  abundance  of  At  15  weeks  3  pounds 

feed   can   unthrifty  chickens   be  grown   without  loss.  At  19  weeks  .. 

Weights  That  Represent  Good  Growth  at  Various  Ages  Whitfe  Wyandotte,  Should  weigh 

A  novice  in  poultry  keeping  is  often  doubtful  of  the       BOTH  SEXES: 

,  .    ,  .  .    .  At     8  weeks  1  pound 

value   of  his     own    opinion   as    to    whether   his    chickens  At  12  weeks  2  pounds 

generally,  or  any  particular  ones  among  them,  are  making                     At  ]%  week!  ":  '.'."I  pounds 

satisfactory    growth.     The    reliable    test    of    this    point    is  At  24  weeks  —.5  pounds 

the    known    weight    of   the    chicks    at    known    ages.     The  COCKERELS: 

TT    .      ,    ^  ~  ..     .  At     8  weeks  1  pound 

United   Mates    Department   of   Agriculture,    from   records  At  12  weeks  2  pounds 

of  weights  of  chicks  grown  at  its  poultry  farm  at   Belts-  £t  l|  weeks  ...  ....3  Pounds 

ville,  Md.,  issued  in  1918  a  tabulation  of  weights  of  White  At  22  weeks  ... 

-r-.,  ,,      T-,      .       iiri-'        iir          i  At  24  weeks  6  pounds 

Plymouth    Rock,    White    Wyandotte,    Rhode    Island    Red,      PULLETS- 

Buff   Orpington,   and  White   Leghorn   chickens   up   to   28  *  At    8  weeks  1  pound 

weeks  of  age  which  gives  growers  an  excellent  standard  At  12  weeks  ...  ....2  P^nds 

for  testing    the  results    of  their    work.    Several   of    the  At  20  weeks  4  pounds 

c,  y,  .          *.&..•  i  i  i-   i     j  r  At  25  weeks  5  pounds 

State  Experiment  Stations  have  published  reports  of  ex- 
periments which  show  both  the  weights  of  chickens  at  Rho<le  lsland  Reds  should  Weigh 

,    ..  ,.   ,  BOTH   SEXES: 

various  ages,  and  the  amounts  of  feed  consumed  to  make  At    9  weeks  l  pound 

these   weights.    Some   of   these   results   are   given   in   the  At  13  weeks ....2  pounds 

t   ..        .  ,,  At  17  weeks  3  pounds 

rollowing  tables:  At  22  weeks  4  pounds 

COCKERELS: 

UNITED    STATES    DEPARTMENT    OF   AGRICULTURE    DATA   ON   WEIGHTS    OF  At       8    weeks  1    pound 

At    12    weeks. 2    pounds 

CHICKENS  AT  VARIOUS  AGES  5    weeks 3    pounds 

Table  showing  the  age  in  weeks  and  tenths  of  weeks  at  which  chickens  of 

the   breeds   named   reached   the   weights   indicated    in   pounds   at   the   top   of   each  Vi    ||    , 

column,   and  average  weight  for  the  'period  of  growth  observed.  „„,  ^  l^x.  w 

Av.      Age  ULLETb: 

Males  lib.    2  Ib.    3  Ib.    4  Ib.    5  Ib.      6  Ib.    7  Ib.    8  Ib.    9  Ib.    Wt.   Wks.  At      9    week? 1    pound 

At    14    weeks 2    pounds 

White    Rock    6.7        9.6     12.3     14.7     17.2     20.1     24.3     26.3     7.73      28.  At    19    weeks 3    pounds 

White    Wyandotte    7.3     11.6      14.6     17.3     22.1     24 5.43      24.7  '           At    25    weeks                     4    pounds 

R.    I.    Red     7.8     11.6     14.7     18.5      23.        24.5     5.4        25.8 

Buff    Orpington    7.5      11.        14.        16.2      18.5      21.        23         24.        27.        7.2        25.  Bllff   Orpingtons    Should    Weigh 

White    Leghorn     8.        11.8      16.6      22.5      4.26      28.  BOTH   SEXES: 

At      8    weeks 1    pound 

Females  At    12    weeks 2    pounds 

White     Rock     7.6      11.3  14.4  18.5  22.6      25.8  6.07      28. 

White    Wyandotte    7.3     12.  15.7  20.7  25.                                           5.17     26.  At    21    weeks 

R.     I.     Red 8.6      13.3  14.8  24.3  4.48      27.4  PULLETS' 

Buff   Orpington    7.6      11.6  14.S  18.6  23.3     4.9        24.  -    At      8 '  weeks 1    pound 

White    Leghorn    9.        15.  24.5  3.14     26.5  At    12    weeks 2    pounds 

Both   Sexes  At    15    weeks 3    pounds 

White    Rock    7.1510.5  13.3  16.6  19.9      22.9  -.4. pounds 

White    Wyandotte    7.3      11.8  15.1  19.  23.5  ^^l^lt^a        S pounds 

R.    I.    Red    8.2     12.4  16.5  21.4 COCKERELS 

Buff   Orpington   7.55   11.3  14.4  17.4  20.9     ~~\    poUl 

White    Leghorn    8.5     13.4  20.5  At    11    weeks....  .....J    pounds 

At    16    weeks 4  pounds 

The    memorandum    published    with    this    table    says:    "The    recorded    weights  At    19    weeks 5  pounds 

from   which   the  above   figures  were   computed   were   for   lots   of   chicks   selected  At   21    weeks 6  pounds 

at   random    from    each    breed   at   hatching    to    give   a    fair    sample    of    the    stock.  At    23    weeks 7  pounds 

Weighings   were   made    at   hatching   and    at    intervals    of   one   week    up    to    24    to  White  Leghorns   Should  Weigh 

28   weeks,   as   seemed   necessary.     The   White  Plymouth  Rock  cockerels  made  on  BOTH   SEXES: 

the  average  nearly  full  standard  weight  of  8  pounds  in  less  than  28  weeks.    The  At      9    weeks 1  pound 

White   Rock   pullets  made   on  the  average   over   standard  weight   of   6   pounds   in  At    14    weeks 2  pounds 

the  same  time.     The   White   Wyandotte   stock   is   standard  weight,  but   the   cock-  At    17    weeks 21/2  poun 

erels    run    under    standard    weight,    of    seven    and    one-half   pounds.      In    fact    the  COCKEREI^6 

standard    weights    for   the    sexes    in    this    and    some    other    breeds    are    dispropor-  ^      g    weeks                     \  pound 

tionate,    and    the    same    mating   will    not    produce    both    sexes    to    make    standard  At    12    weeks...... 2  pounds 

weight  in  a   given   period   as  regularly  as   in   the  case   of   the   White   Rock   stock  At    14    weeks 2%  pounds 

on   this   farm.      The   Rhode   Island   Red    stock    observed    is    rather  under  standard  At    17    weeks 3  pounds 

weights.     The  Buff  Orpington   records  were   for  only  one   season,  and   the  obser-  At    23    weeks 4  pounds 

vations  were   not  continued  for  all   the  birds  through   the   full   period  of  growth.  At      q    weeks                    l  nound 

The    figures    given,    however,    fairly    indicate    what    may    be    expected    of   average  £t    15    weeks"                 2  pounds 

gx>bd  growing  Orpingtons  in  the  period  designated.     The  White  Leghorns  are  of  At    20    weeks.........!.— 2%  pounds 

ordinary  average  size,  with  some  specimens  well  above  the  average."  At   25    weeks 3  pounds 


FEEDING  CHICKS  FROM  WEANING  TO  MATURITY 


67 


[Purdue  Experiment  Station  Report  on  Feed  Consumed  by 
White  Plymouth  Rocks  in  Growing  Period 

At  the  Purdue  University  Agr.  Experiment  Station 
La  Fayette,  Ind.,  in  1916  and  1917,  records  of  the  consump- 
tion of  feed  and  of  the  weights  of  White  Plymouth  Rock 
chickens  at  intervals  during  the  entire  growing  period 
were  kept  for  two  large  lots 'of  chickens,  nearly  200  being 
in  the  first  experiment,  and  about  250  in  the  second.  The 
chickens  in  each  case  were  kept  all  together  while  the}' 
required  brooding.  When  they  no  longer  needed  heat, 
the  pullets  were  placed  in  one  lot  and  the  cockerels  it. 
another,  about  one-third  of  the  cockerels  having  been 
caponized.  The  records  for  the  cockerels  were  kept  for 
24  weeks.  At  the  end  of  that  time  those  m  the  first  ex- 
periment averaged  6.4  pounds  each;  those  in  the  second 
experiment  6.46  pounds  each.  The  capons  were  kept  until 
41  weeks  old,  and  averaged  to  weigh  when  sold — in  the 
first  experiment,  9.91  pounds;  in  the  second,  9.37  pounds. 
The  records  for  the  pullets  were  kept  for  28  weeks,  at 
which  age  about  half  of  them  were  laying  and  the  average 
weight  was: — in  the  first  experiment,  5.56  pounds;  in  the 
second,  5.73  pounds. 

Considering  the  numbers  of  birds  involved  the  re- 
sults in  these  two  experiments  are  remarkably  uniform 
and  the  weights  show  good  work  on  the  part  of  the 
grower.  Both  in  these  figures  and  in  those  in  the  pre- 
ceding report,  it  should  be  noted  that,  with  the  averages 
as  given,  a  great  many  individual  birds  are  considerably 
above  the  average,  and — of  course — about  an  equal  num- 
ber considerably  below  it. 


CON)*rMPTION   OP   DIFFERENT  FEEDS   IX   POUNDS 
PER  BIRD 


Cock'ls     Capons 


8.44 


t  Experiment    No.  1  —  1916 

Feed  Chicks     Pullets 

Cracked    corn    ........................  1.44 

Cracked   wheat  ......................  0.19 

Whole  wheat  ..........................  1.25 

Steel    cut    oats    ......................  0.19 

Ground    oats    ..........................  0.24 

Shorts     ......................................  0.24 

Bran     .........................................  0.24 

Corn    meal    ..............................  0.24 

Meat  scraps  ...........  1  ................  0.24 

Milk    ..........................................  7.6 

Charcoal    ..................................  0.08 

Grit   ............................................  0.1 

Ground    bone    ..........................  0.08 

Corn    .. 


1.1 
1.5 

15 
1.5 
0.8 

17.0 
0.1 
0.1 
0.1 

10.2 


7.75 

!L~35 
1.46 
1.46 
1.46 
1.14 
15.87 
0.10 
008 
0.06 
7.77 


10.5 

o'.'i'i 

2.38 
1.61 
3.10 
0.91 

31.70 
0.09 
0.19 
0.19 

12.00 


The  full  amount  of  feed  consumed  by  each  pullet  in 
28  weeks  is  found  by  adding  the  figures  in  the  columns 
for  chicks  and  for  pullets;  the  full  amount  for  the  cockerels 
for  24  weeks,  by  adding  the  figures  in  the  columns  for 
chicks  and  for  cockerels;  and  the  full  amount  for  the 
capons  for  41  weeks  by  adding  to  the  figures  for  cock- 
erels those  in  the  column  for  capons.  The  figures  in  the 
column  for  pullets  show  the  average  consumption  for 
each  pullet  from  the  time  of  weaning  at  9  weeks,  to  the 
age  of  28  weeks,  the  time  they  were  on  the  range.  The 
figures  in  the  column  for  cockerels  show  the  average  con- 
sumption of  each  cockerel,  and  of  each  capon,  from  9  to 
24  weeks.  The  figures  in  the  column  for  capons  show  the 
average  consumption  of  each  capon  from  24  to  41  weeks. 
None  of  the  figures  include  green  feed  of  which  the  birds 
consumed  large  quantities  on  range. 

Experiment   No.  2 — 1917 

Feed                                 Chicks     Pullets  Cock'ls  Capons 

Cracked    corn    2.3  4.7  

Cracked    \vheat   0.1  

Whole    wheat    0.92  3.4  2.6  2  8 

Steel   cut   oats   0.1  

Ground  oats  1.32 

Shorts     0.4J>  1.6  1.8  2.74 

Bran    0.49  1.6  1.8  1.42 

Corn  meal  3.97 

Meat   scraps   0.24  1.0  1  1  0.8 

Milk    6.54  30.6  15.4  50.5 

Charcoal    0.01  0.02  0.01  0.02 

Grit 0.06  0.08  0  04  0.18 

Ground    bone    0.05  0.2  0.1  0.22 

Corn    5.2  6.45 

Prepared   feed   7.45  7.0  2.8 

Whole    oats    ..  1.89  14.76 


These  two  experiments  are  especially  interesting  and 
valuable  because  of  the  remarkable  uniformity  of  results 
secured  with  quite  different  rations.  As  will  be  noted,  the 
second  experiment  was  made  in  the  year  1917  when  war 
conditions  were  sending  prices  of  feeds  up  and  making 
it  difficult  to  get  feeds.  The  ordinary  rations  used  for 
chicks  at  Purdue  are  given  in  Nos.  10  and  lOa  in  the 
lists  of  rations  for  chicks  in  this  book.  As  to  feeding  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  1917  season  the  report  says: — 
"During  the  summer  months  the  grain  rations  were 
changed  to  meet  the  feed-cost  conditions.  When  the  prices 
of  corn  and  wheat  became  so  high,  a  prepared  scratch 
feed  was  purchased  in  large  quantities;  later,  oats  were 
used  as  the  only  grain.  When  new  corn  became  available, 
soft  corn  on  the  cob  was  purchased  at  a  reasonable  price, 
and  used  as  grain.  During  the  last  three  weeks  of  both 
experiments  the  capons  were  fed  a  wet  mash  to  insure 
a  good  finish." 

Ontario  Experiment  Station  Report  of  Feed  Consumed  by 
Growing  Chicks 

"We  were  able  in  1909  to  keep  an  exact  record  of  the 
birds  grown  in  a  pasture  field  and  of  those  grown  in  an 
orchard.  The  chicks  in  the  pasture  field  were  hatched 
during  the  first  two  weeks  in  May.  Three  hundred  and 
forty-five  birds  were  grown  to  maturity  or  to  a  size 
suitable  for  fattening.  We  began  to  remove  the  cock- 
eiels  from  the  fields  to  the  fattening  pens  on  August  25th; 
The  pullets  and  cockerels  held  for  breeders  were  all  taken 
from  the  field  by  the  22nd  of  October.  The  breeds  were 
Orpingtons,  Wyandottes,  Plymouth  Rocks,  Leghorns,  etc. 
They  consumed  4,304  pounds  of  grain;  of  this  about  one- 
third  would  be  dry  mash,  nearly  300  pounds  chick  feed, 
and  the  balance  wheat,  corn,  and  hulled  oats  in  the  pro- 
portion of  two  and  a  half,  two,  and  one.  There  was  five 
per  cent  of  beef  scrap  added  to  the  dry  mash.  The  birds 
were  weighed  when  taken  from  the  field,  weighing  1,341 
pounds,  or  one  pound  of  chicken  representing  3.2  pounds 
of  grain.  Some  of  the  breeding  cockerels  weighed  over 
seven  pounds,  and  the  Leghorn  pullets  did  not  average 
three  pounds  in  weight.  We  removed  most  of  the  cock- 
erels at  about  three  and  one-half  pounds  weight,  or  when 
they  would  fatten  most  economically. 

"The  chickens  reared  in  the  orchard  varied  more  in 
age.  The  first  were  hatched  on  the  25th  of  April  and  the. 
last  on  July  6th.  Most  of  the  birds  were  hatched  in  May. 
We  sold  218  as  broilers  from  this  lot  during  July.  The 
later  cockerels  were  removed  to  the  fattening  crates  as 
was  done  with  those  grown  in  the  pasture  field.  Most  of 
the  pullets  were  taken  out  about  the  first  of  October,  and 
by  the  first  of  November  practically  all  had  been  re- 
moved with  the  exception  of  about  100;  these  were  cock- 
erels held  as  breeders,  and  the  July  chicks.  We  raised 
in  this  field  733  chickens  at  a  cost  of  8,649  pounds  of 
grain.  A  pound  of  chicken  equaled  3.34  pounds  of  grain, 
or  nearly  the  same  as.  the  pasture-field  chickens.  The 
figures  mean  that  a  farmer  can  in  his  field  raise  a  four- 
pound  cockerel  for  thirteen  or  fourteen  pounds  of  grain." 

What  the  Average  Farm  Flock  of  Chicks  Can  Get  From 
Farm  Range 

In  both  of  the  above  instances  the  flocks  of  chickens 
were  larger,  and  also  more  limited  for  range — in  one  sense 
— than  the  average  farm  flock  which  roams  where  it 
pleases.  These  experimental  flocks  had  good  range,  as  far 
as  vegetable  and  animal  feed  supplies  were  concerned,  but 
got  little  or  no  grain  from  their  range.  At  the  Ontario 
Station  the  chickens  are  given  new  land  each  year,  land 


68 


that  is  hygienically  clean  and  supplies  them  with  the  feed 
accessoiies.  They  are  an  animal  crop  in  a  rotation  of  prin- 
cipally vegetable  crops.  On  the  ordinary  grain,  grass,  and 
stock  growing  farm,  where  the  number  of  chickens  is 
rarely  more  than  200  to  300  and  the  chicks  can  have  the 
range  of  many  fields,  it  is  often  possible,  by  distributing 
the  chickens  as  widely  as  is  practical,  and  by  moving  the 
coops  several  times  in  the  course  of  the  season,  to  have 
them  eat  a  large  amount  of  grain  that  would  otherwise  be 
wasted.  When  it  is  considered  that  the  ordinary  waste 
of  small  grains  in  handling  in  the  field  at  harvest  is 
about  five  per  cent  of  the  yield,  and  that  in  ordinary 
threshing  as  much  more  is  left  in  the  straw,  and  that  the 
wastes  often  greatly  exceed  this,  it  is  easy  to  see  that 
a  farm  with  from  sixty  to  a  hundred  acres  or  more  in 
grains  of  various  kinds  and  grass  has  waste  grain  enough 
to  grow  quite  a  large  stock  of  poultry — provided  the 
birds  are  distributed  where  they  can  get  the  grain,  and 
shifted  on  the  land  to  cover  it  all  during  the  season. 

Reports  are  frequently  made  of  farm  flocks  of  chick- 
ens up  to  200  or  more  that  are  fed  little  grain  from  the 
ciibs.  Knowing  the  amount  of  grain  that  it  takes  to  make 
a  certain  weight  of  chicken  under  the  conditions  in  the 
experiments  that  have  been  cited,  we  can  make  close  est<- 
mates  of  the  amount  of  waste  feed  salvaged  by  a  flock 
that  gets  practically  all  its  grain  from  the  land.  One  hun- 
dred chickens  raised  to  an  average  weight  of  three  pounds 
will  each  have  consumed  about  ten  pounds  of  grain — a 
thousand  pounds  in  all.  One  hundred  six-pound  chickens 
will  have  consumed  a  ton  of  grain.  Of  grains  as  they  are 
found  on  the  farm  fields  and  in  the  yards  there  would  be 
from  forty  to  fifty  bushels,  according  to  the  relative  pro- 
portions of  oats  and  of  heavier  grains. 

On  the  farm  that  grows  considerable  quantities  -~>I- 
grain,  the  question  of  feeding  poultry  is  one  of  using  the 
waste  grain  to  best  advantage.  It  will  not  in  every  case 
be  most  profitable  to  plan  to  have  poultry  use  all  the  waste 
grain,  but  there  will  always  be  a  great  deal  of  it  that  poui- 
try  can  glean  to  better  advantage  than  anything  else,  and 
the  farm  plans  for  poultry  keeping  should  be  designed  to 
get  the  most  out  of  this.  While  for  the  purpose  of  illus- 
tration we  have  discussed  the  possibility  of  a  considerable 
flock  of  chickens  getting  all  their  grain  from  the  farm, 
that  may  not  always  be  the  best  plan.  In  many  cases  it 
will  be  more  profitable,  on  the  whole,  to  plan  the  poultrv 
keeping  with  a  view  to  having  stock  enough  to  consume 
the  large  wastes  of  grain  within  a  comparatively  short 
time  after  they  are  available.  This  may  mean  feeding 
more  or  less  salable  grain  at  other  times. 

Another  point  which  the  farmer  who  has  much  waste 
giain  available  for  poultry  at  some  seasons  should  con- 
sider is  that,  except  when  such  wastes  are  abundant  and 
easily  obtained,  leaving  poultry  to  find  all  feed  for  them- 
selves compels  them  to  work  too  hard  for  what  they  get, 
— to  use  up  in  energy  much  nutriment  that  could  more  pro- 
fitably go  to  growth,  and  makes  chickens  too  hard-meated 
to  be  really  first-class  table  poultry.  Many  farmers  have 
so  much  other  work  to  do  that  the  most  profitable  method 
for  them  to  follow  with  poultry  is  to  keep  just  enough  to 
stock  the  range  that  they  can  use  for  poultry,  and  leave 
the  birds  generally  to  themselves.  But  wherever  it  seems 
advantageous  to  give  special  attention  to  poultry  on  the 
farm,  it  will  be  found  profitable  to  carry  stocks  of  chick- 
ens much  larger  than  the  range  will  supply  with  the  grain 
needed,  adopting  to  some  extent  the  policy  of  growers  of 
first-class  market  poultry,  who  go  on  the  principle  of  giv- 
ing chicks  free  range,  but  feeding  them  so  well  that  they 


will  take  only  exercise  enough  to  keep  them  in  good  con- 
dition until  fit  for  market. 

A  course  about  midway  between  this  practice  of  mar- 
ket poultry  growers  and  that  of  the  farmer  who  makes  his. 
chickens  hunt  for  most  of  their  feed,  will  give  full  growth 
and  vigor  without  making  young  birds  noticeably  hard- 
meated.  A  farmer  who  distributes  his  chickens  so  that 
the  grain  they  get  from  the  land  will  equal  about  half  of 
the  usual  grain  ration,  and  finds  that  he  gets  a  normal  rate 
of  growth  by  feeding  about  half  the  quantities  of  grain 
consumed  by  chickens  on  a  range  that  affords  no  sub- 
stantial amount  of  grain,  may  conclude  that  he  is  growing- 
chickens  about  as  they  should  be  grown  for  laying  and 
stock  purposes,  still  keeping  them  so  soft-meated  that 
when  properly  finished  for  market  they  will  be  quite  a.A 
tender  as  those  which  the  market  poultry  specialist  keeps 
soft-meated  by  feeding  so  that  they  take  the  least  amount 
of  exercise  that  will  keep  them  from  indigestion  until  they 
are  fattened  for  market. 

Observations  on  Various   Relations  of  Feed  and  Condi- 
tions of  Feeding  to  Growth  and  Development 

Chickens  from  the  same  stock  may  be  grown  in  about 
the  same  time  to  the  same  weight,  and  yet  develop  on 
such  different  lines  that  they  appear  to  be  of  quite  dis- 
stinctly  different  types.  This  is  most  noticeable  in  standard 
exhibition  stock  from  the  same  breeder,  grown  by  various 
purchasers  of  eggs  under  different  conditions,  but  it  may 
easily  be  observed  by  comparing  stock  of  the  same  breed 
as  grown  by  different  breeders  for  different  purposes.  A 
ration  with  a  large  proportion  of  soft  feed  will  grow  a 
different  type  of  chickens  from  one  with  a  large  propor- 
tion of  hard  feed.  A  ration  in  which  corn  is  the  principal 
ingredient  will  grow  a  different  type  of  chicken  from  one 
which  contains  mostly  wheat  or  barley.  A  ration  con- 
taining a  large  amount  of  meat  will  have  a  different  effect 
on  the  development  of  the  comb  and  wattles  from  one 
containing  no  meat.  Feeds  will  modify  development 
just  as  conditions  may. 

Soft  feed,  and  feed  of  which  chickens  are  very  fond 
and  of  which  they  eat  freely,  tend  to  make  coarse-boned, 
ioose-jointed  birds  which,  because  of  these  characteristics, 
develop  quite  a  different  carriage  from  what  they  would 
have  had  on  a  harder  diet  of  which  they  ate  more  sparing- 
ly. If  with  the  feed  that  makes  for  bulk,  looseness  of 
frame,  and  coarse  bone,  we  have  conditions  of  life  that 
also  tend  to  these  results,  the  effects  are  aggravated.  On 
the  contrary,  if  we  give  conditions  having  an  opposite  ten- 
dency to  that  of  the  ration,  we  can  neutralize  effects  if 
they  are  undesirable.  Whether  they  are  undesirable  will 
depend  upon  the  purpose  for  which  the  birds  are  to  be 
used. 

Many  growers  of  standard  exhibition  stock  give  little 
or  no  meat  to  growing  chicks,  because  of  the  tendency  of 
meat  to  make  the  comb  and  wattles  large  and  coarse.  Ob- 
viously the  objection  to  the  feeding  of  meat  in  such  cases 
will  be  most  in  evidence  in  stocks  where  the  tendency  is 
to  a  larger  comb  than  is  desired;  and  in  stocks  with  rather 
small  combs  it  will  be  possible  to  feed  meat  quite  freely 
without  getting  objectionable  coarseness  in  comb  and  wat- 
tles. Where  meat  is  withheld  for  the  purpose  named,  it  's 
necessary  and  customary  to  give  the  birds  every  other 
possible  advantages  to  make  good  growth. 

The  feeding  of  yellow  corn  and  corn  meal  to  poultry 
increases  the  yellow  color  in  fat  and  in  the  skin,  the  scales 
of  the  legs,  and  the  beak.  It  also  commonly  increases  the 
creaminess  of  white  plumage,  though  it  does  not  in- 
variably do  this,  for  there  are  some  birds  and  some  stocks 
in  which  the  yellow  color  does  not  appear  in  white  plum- 
age no  matter  how  much  yellow  corn  is  fed.  In  this  matter 


FEEDING  CHICKS  FROM  WEANING  TO  MATURITY 


69 


the  poultry  keeper  must  act  according  to  the  circum- 
stances. Breeders  of  white  varieties  generally  try  to  de- 
velop in  their  stock  the  absolute  white  plumage.  This  is 
difficult,  and  also  is  a  slow  process.  Meantime  it  is  good 
policy  for  one  who  finds  that  yellow  corn  affects  the  plum- 
age of  his  white  poultry  to  an  undesirable  extent,  to  re- 
frain from  using  it.  In  England  and  on  the  continent  of 
Europe  where  there  is  more  or  less  prejudice  against  yel- 
low color  of  the  skin  and  yellow  fat  in  poultry,  the  market 
poultry  growers  avoid  feeding  yellow  corn  and  meal.  In 
the  United  States  the  yellower  the  poultry  the  better  it 
pleases  the  consuming  public,  so  the  grower  of  market 
poultry  feeds  all  of  both  that  his  poultry  will  stand. 

Feeding  Chickens  in  the  Fall 

With  the  coming  of  decidedly  cool  nights  in  the  fall, 
vigorous,  healthy  chickens  usually  develop  tremendous 
appetites.  With  due  attention  to  the  modification  of  heavy 


WELL-GROWN    PULLETS    IN    GRASSY    YARDS    WITH    AUTOMATIC 
GRAIN    FEEDER 


rations  in  the  occasional  hot  spells  that  still  come  during 
September  in  the  North  and  may  be  looked  for  even  a 
month  later  in  the  South,  the  chickens  should  be  fed  ail 
that  they  will  eat  of  good,  substantial  rations.  Those  thai 
are  being  fed  at  this  season  are  mostly  pullets  for  layers 
stock  birds,  and  cockerels  that  were  not  ready  to  market 
when  prices  were  good  in  the  early  summer,  or  that  were 
not  sold  then  simply  because  the  grower  (as  is  the  case 
on  many  farms)  follows  the  custom  of  letting  all  chickens, 
except  what  are  consumed  at  home  through  the  season, 
grow  until  late  in  the  fall,  and  then  make  a  general  clean- 
up of  the  stock  that  is  not  to  be  carried  over,  reserving 


what  pullets  and  hens  are  wanted,  and  a  few  cockerels,  and 
selling  all  the  remainder. 

It  is  usually  the  best  policy  in  poultry  keeping  to  have 
the  stock  at  this  season  down  as  clo>se  as  possible  to  what 
is  to  be  carried  through  the  winter.  Breeders  who  sell 
breeding  stock,  of  course,  have  to  carry  a  considerable  part 
of  it  well  into  the  winter,  and  perhaps  some  of  it  until 
spring,  but  in  nearly  all  other  cases  the  poultry  keeper 
who  sells  all  cockerels  that  are  not  to  be  used  for  breed- 
ing, or  that  have  not  been  caponized  in  the  summer,  an  1 
works  off  as  table  poultry  his  cull  pullets  and  all  hens  that 
are  not  regarded  as  promising  layers  for  another  year, 
doing  this  as  early  in  the  fall  as  possible,  is  in  a  much 
better  position  to  handle  the  stock  on  hand  to  the  best 
advantage. 

The  common  difficulties  in  feeding — and  in  getting  the 
results  that  should  be  obtained — at  this  season,  are  the 
the  overcrowding  of  stock,  and  short- 
feeding,  either  as  a  result  of  short- 
age of  feed  on  ranges  that  were  good 
through  the  earlier  part  of  the  sea- 
son, or  because  the  cost  of  feeding 
a  large  stock  at  a  time  when  returns 
from  it  are  small  is  such  a  burden  that 
the  owner  adopts  the  mistaken  policy 
of  feeding  a  little  light,  in  order  to 
make  the  feed  (and  his  money)  go  as 
far  as  possible.  In  all  management  of 
live  stock,  the  only  sound  policy  is 
to  keep  only  those  that  are  worth 
feeding  for  the  purpose  for  which 
they  are  kept,  to  keep  only  as  many 
as  the  land  or  the  resources  in  feed 
and  money  will  carry,  and  to  feed 
at  all  times  all  that  the  creatures  can 
use  to  good  advantage.  Any  other 
course  defeats  its  own  ends.  Ad- 
justment to  get  the  right  conditions 
is  simply  a  matter  of  culling  rigidly 
and  culling  early.  When  this  is  done, 
the  unprofitable  and  least  profitable 
individuals  are  weeded  out,  reducing 
the  number  to  be  fed,  while  the  re- 
ceipts for  those  sold  become  avail- 
able to  buy  feed  for  the  others. 

The  poultry  keeper  can  more  fully 
appreciate  the  occasion  for  heavier 
feeding  at  this  time  if  he  will  con- 
sider that  the  chickens  are  mostly 
now  not  more  than  three-fourths 
grown,  that  even  at  summer  tem- 
peratures their  requirements  for 
growth  are  steadily  increasing,  and 
that  with  every  decline  in  the  aver- 
age daily  temperature  the  chickens, 
to  keep  up  their  normal  rate  of 
growth,  must  have  more  heat-pro- 
ducing feed.  These  two  things  call  for  large  increases 
in  the  feed  consumed,  and  in  addition,  it  is  the  natural 
tendency  of  poultry  to  put  on  fat  at  this  time  in  antici- 
pation of  coming  cold  weather  when  the  demands  for 
heat  will  at  all  times  be  beyond  the  heating  capacity  of 
the  ration  that  they  can  -digest.  Thus  coming  altogether, 
we  have  practically  a  trebling  of  the  rate  of  increase  in 
feed  requirements  that  obtained  through  the  summer. 

To  keep  chickens  growing  right  it  is  necessary  to 
provide  fully  for  these  increased  requirements,  giving 
the  birds  all  that  they  can  eat  and  digest.  Where  whole 
corn  is  available  it  may  be  fed  freely  at  least  once  a  day. 


70 


HOW  TO  FEED  POULTRY  FOR  ANY  PURPOSE  WITH  PROFIT 


preferably  the  last  thing  at  night.  Where  cracked  corn 
and  meal  only  can  be  had,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  increase 
the  proportions  of  both  in  the  ration  and  also  to  in- 
crease the  amount  of  animal  feed  as  long  as  the  chickens 
will  eat  increased  amounts  in  their  mash  with  relish,  or 
— when  it  is  fed  separately — give  them  all  they  want. 
With  these  increases  in  the  more  concentrated  feeds,  veg- 
etable feeds  and  milk  should  be  supplied  as  freely  as  pos- 
sible. Waste  windfall  apples  in  quantity  will  go  a  long 
way  toward  feeding  poultry,  and  they  are  widely  avail- 
able. Frequently  large  quantities  of  cabbage  that  have 
come  on  a  little  too  fast  for  winter  storage  and  have 
split  heads  are  available  for  poultry  feeding,  or  may  be 
bought  in  quantity  at  prices  that  make  them  economical 
feeds.  Anything  on  his  place,  or  in  his  vicinity,  that 
poultry  will  eat,  and  that  it  appears  will  otherwise  go  to 
loss,  a  poultry  keeper  should  secure  for  his  poultry. 

Where  such  supplies  are  abundant  and  the  stock  of 
poultry  not  large,  they  may  make  so  much  of  the  feed 
that  the  grain  requirements  are  reduced,  but  in  general, 
the  birds  will  consume  as  much  grain  as  ever,  or  per- 
haps more;  the  advantage  and  the  saving  are  not  in  act- 
ual reduction  of  the  amounts  of  grain  used,  but  in  keep- 
ing the  chickens  growing  at  the  best  possible  rate  and 
getting  them  to  full  growth  and  maturity  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible. Many  people  are  afraid  to  feed  pullets  heavily  as 
they  approach  maturity,  for  fear  of  getting  them  too  fat 
to  lay.  There  is  not  the  least  danger  of  that  except 
where  they  are  grown  in  very  restricted  quarters  and 
with  much  less  green  feed  than  is  necessary  to  keep 
them  in  good  condition.  The  question  of  the  relation  of 
fat  to  egg  production  will  be  considered  in  detail  in  con- 
nection with  that  subject  in  the  next  chapter.  Here  it  is 
only  necessary  to  say  that  when  pullets  are  grown  un- 
der such  conditions  and  on  such  rations  as  will  produce 
pullets  with  the  development  and  the  constitution  re- 
quired to  make  them  profitable  layers,  there  is  not  only 
no  danger  of  preventing  their  laying  by  heavy  feeding 
at  this  period,  but  the  heaviest  feeding  they  can  stand 
and  keep  good  appetites  is  what  they  need  to  bring  them 
to  laying  as  soon  as  they  are  full  grown. 

Relation  of  Poultry  Parasites  to  Feeding  and  Feeding 

Results 

Whatever  diminishe's  the  comfort  and  vitality  of  a 
creature  unfavorably  affects  digestion  and  production. 
We  can  see  this  most  plainly  in  milch  cows  which  are 
fed  and  yield  their  product  under  conditions  that  bring 
out  clearly  the  influence  of  excitement  or  discomfort 
upon  appetite,  digestion,  and  the  flow  of  milk.  The  in- 
dividual peculiarities  of  cows  are  noted  because  cows 
have  to  have  individual  treatment  in  feeding  and  milking. 
Similar  peculiarities  in  hens  are  not  so  likely  to  be  noted, 
because  the  unit  in  poultry  work  is  a  flock,  not  an  in- 
dividual. The  variations  in  the  quantity  of  milk  given 
by  a  cow  are  conspicuous  because  she  is  milked  at  reg- 
ular intervals  and  the  amount  of  milk  is  expected  to  be 
the  same  from  day  to  day.  Anything  disturbing  to  the 
cow  is  so  certain  to  be  followed  by  a  reduction  in  the 
quantity  of  milk  at  the  next  milking  that  the  person  in 
charge  of  the  cow  has  to  be  very  obtuse  not  to  see  the 
relation  between  the  cause  and  the  effect. 

In  the  care  of  laying  hens  fluctuations  in  the  egg 
yield  on  account  of  disturbances  are  not  as  plain  as  the 


I 


corresponding  developments  in  connection  with  milk  pro- 
duction, but  still  are  often  apparent  to  ordinary  observa- 
tion. In  growing  chicks,  even  at  the  most  rapid  rate  of 
growth,  the  daily  increase  is  not  so  noticeable  that  the 
effects  of  things  that  check  growth  will  be  immediately 
noticed.  It  is  often  only  after  a  check  has  been  operat- 
ing for  several  days  or  a  week  or  more  that  its  cumula- 
tive effects  attract  attention."  Because  of  this  it  is  nec- 
essary for  a  poultry  grower,  and  especially  for  a  novice, 
to  guard  against  the  development  of  conditions  that  may 
unfavorably  affect  growth.  In  earlier  sections  in  this 
chapter  instructions  were  given  in  regard  to  anticipating 
the  effects  of  extreme  heat  upon  appetite  and  growth,  by 
suitable  adjustments  of  the  diet.  Equally  important  is 
the  matter  of  the  relation  of  parasites  to  the  consump- 
tion and  digestion  and  assimililation  of  feed. 

The  presence  in  small  numbers  of  lice  and  mites  o 
adult  poultry,  or  poultry  that  is  nearly  grown,  does  not 
appear  to  be  particularly  detrimental  to  them.  It  is  not 
unreasonable  to  suppose,  as  some  do,  that  the  body  lice 
in  moderate  numbers  may  be  beneficial,  the  irritation 
they  cause  stimulating  the  bird  to  wallow  in  the  dust, 
which  process,  results  in  cleaning  the  plumage  as  well  as 
destroying  most  of  the  parasites.  The  parasites  that  con- 
sume dead  skin  are  of  some  use,  and  it  is  not  at  all  im- 
possible that  the  blood  sucking  mites  do  some  service  by 
taking  blood  from  birds  that  have  too  much  blood  pres- 
sure. But  the  increase  of  parasites  from  harmless  to 
harmful  numbers  may  be  made  so  quickly,  and  with  such 
serious  effects  .upon  growing  chickens,  that  the  poultry 
grower  needs  always  to  keep  this  situation  well  in  hand, 
taking  whatever  measures  are  necessary  to  keep  lice  and 
mites  in  subjection. 

Head  and  body  lice  of  poultry  are  most  troublesome 
while  the  chicks  are  small.  Red  mites  do  most  of  the 
damage  during  the  summer.  The  effective  way  to  keep 
them  down  is  by  thoroughly  spraying  with  a  good  liquid 
insecticide  and  disinfectant  all  coops  and  houses  occu- 
pied by  growing  chickens.  They  should  be  sprayed  be- 
fore chickens  are  put  into  them,  watched  closely  for  the 
appearance  of  mites,  and  sprayed  as  often  as  signs  of 
these  are  seen.  Spraying  at  regular  intervals  is  fre- 
quently recommended,  but  in  the  writer's  opinion  it  is 
generally  better  to  keep  a  sharp  lookout  and  spray  when 
necessary.  In  hot,  damp  weather  mites  sometimes  mul- 
tiply with  amazing  rapidity,  and  those  who  rely  upon 
regular  sprayings  and  do  not  watch  closely  for  mites 
often  overlook  an  inroad  of  them  that  may  start  soon 
after  a  spraying,  until  it  has  done  a  great  deal  of  damage. 

Either  lice  or  mites  in  sufficient  numbers  can  com- 
pletely neutralize  the  effects  of  the  best  of  rations,  and 
the  best  of  conditions  in  other  respects.  They  sap  the 
vitality  of  the  birds,  diminish  their  appetites,  impair  their 
powers  of  digestion,  and  take  the  profit  out  of  the  poultry 
growing.  Nor  are  the  effects  of  lice  and  mites  seen  only 
in  these  general  respects.  In  the  growing  of  exhibition 
poultry,  the  diminished  vitality  of  the  birds  due  to  the 
presence  of  lice  or  mites,  or  both,  affects  the  develop- 
ment of  the  feathers,  making  faults  that  would  not  other- 
wise be  present;  and  may  also  .notably  affect  the  car- 
riage and  type  of  the  bird.  Poultry  may  live  while  in- 
fested with  lice,  but  they  will  not  thrive  if  lice  cause  them 
any  serious  discomfort  or  annoyance. 


CHAPTER    VII 

Feeding  For  Egg  Production 

Feeding  and  Management  of  Hens  of  All  Types  and  Breeds  to  Secure  Heavy  Egg  Production — Laying  Rations  Used 
and   Recommended   By   Federal  and   State   Demonstration  and  Experiment  Farms,  and  By  Commer- 
cial   Egg   Farmers — Amounts   of    Feed    Consumed    By    Laying   Hens — Modifying   Rations 

to  Suit  Weather  Conditions 


O 


NE  of  the  easiest  things  in  poultry  keeping  is  to 
get  good  egg  production.  It  can  be  done  quite 
easily  under  conditions  in  which  it  is  difficult 
to  grow  good  chickens  and  in  which  good  results  from 
breeding  stock  are  rarely  obtained.  Why  is  it,  then, 
that  so  many  people  strive  unsuccessfully  to  get  even 
ordinary  egg  yields  and  so  few  report  extraordinary 
yields?  It  is  simply  because  so  many  people  are  look- 
ing for  some  way  of  getting  good  egg  yields  by  some 
other  process  than  that  which  regularly  gives  them. 
The  way  to  get  good  egg  production,  while  in  itself  easy, 
is  not  equally  attractive  to  all  who  engage  in  poultry 
keeping.  It  is  close  attention  to  the  wants  of  the  hens, 
regular  feeding  of  rations  furnishing  a  good  variety  of 
feeds,  care  of  the  birds  and  the  premises  they  occupy  to 
keep  them  comfortable  under  changing  weather  condi- 
tions, and  to  keep  the  place  they  live  in  reasonably  clean. 
The  routine  of  attention  to  these  details  may  sometimes 
be  simplified  by  the  use  of  appliances  and  a  system  of 
management  that  reduce  the  number  of  times  that  atten- 
tion is  given  to  the  birds  daily,  but  in  general  when  good 
egg  yields  are  obtained,  some  interested  and  responsible 
person  is  looking  after  their  wants  not  less  than  twice, 
and  oftener  three  times,  a  day. 

It  is  best  to  recognize  this  fact  at  the  beginning  of  a 
discussion  of  feeding  for  egg  production.  The  cases 
where  good  results  are  obtained  with  less  attention  are 
exceptions  in  which  an  unusually  favorable  combination 
of  other  things  affecting  egg  production  has  made  it  pos- 
sible for  a  poultry  keeper  to  get  good  to  extra-good  pro- 
duction with  a  minimum  of  attention.  The  consideration 
of  these  exceptional  cases  will  be  taken  up  after  discus- 
sion of  feeding  for  egg  production  under  the  usual  con- 
ditions which  give  ordinary  good  results.  In  discussing 
this  general  line  of  feeding  for  egg  production  we  will 
begin  with  the  pullets  in  the  fall,  and  consider  the  man- 
agement of  a  flock  from  the  time  they  are  first  put  into 
the  laying  houses,  through  the  winter,  spring  and  sum- 
mer, and  the  first  annual  molt,  bringing  them  up  to  the 
beginning  of  their  second  laying  year.  Before  going  into 
the  details  of  handling  and  feeding  under  ordinary  con- 
ditions, it  will  be  worth  while  to  consider  the  conditions 
under  which  pullets  lay  according  to  expectation  prompt- 
ly upon  reaching  the  age  of  maturity. 

The  Ideal  Way  to  Manage  Pullets  for  Egg  Production 

The  surest  way  to  have  pullets  begin  to  lay  about 
the  time  they  make  their  growth,  and  continue  to  lay 
regularly,  is  to  grow  them  in  the  house  that  they  are  to 
occupy  as  layers.  This  is  not  commonly  practiced  be- 
cause, after  maturity,  layers  do  not  need  as  good  range 
as  they  had  while  growing,  and  because,  as  a  rule,  the 
houses  for  the  laying  stock  are  occupied  by  the  preced- 
ing generation  of  layers  throughout  the  greater  part  of 
the  period  when  the  pullets  are  grown.  The  reason  pul- 
lets handled  in  this  way  are  normal  in  regard  to  the  time 
of  beginning  laying,  while  apparently  as  well  grown 
pullets  that  have  been  shifted  several  times  during  the 


growing  period,  with  the  last  shift  (to  permanent  laying 
houses)  coming  just  about  the  time  they  are  expected  to 
begin  to  lay,  will  be  weeks  and  possibly  months  in  get- 
ting into  regular  laying,  is — that  unless  such  shifts  are 
made  with  the  jgreatest  care  to  keep  the  birds  quiet,  com- 
fortable, and  contented,  every  move  checks  development 
and  retards  egg  production. 

This  effect  of  change  is  found  in  nearly  every  func- 
tion of  poultry  that  has  to  be  considered  in  connection 
with  growth  and  reproduction.  Mention  was  made  in 
the  last  chapter  of  the  effects  of  change  of  diet  on  some 
birds,  and  of  the  importance  of  using  systems  of  feeding 
that  reduced  the  susceptibility  of  birds  to  such  changes. 
When  breeding  poultry  are  moved  to  new  locations,  even 
in  the  vicinity  of  their  old  home,  they  often  do  not  breed 
right  for  some  time,  but  give  an  extraordinary  propor- 
tion of  infertile  eggs  and  weak  germs.  Everyone  who 
has  moved  hens  that  were  laying  when  moved  knows  that 
it  usually  stops  egg  production  for  some  time.  When 
these  things  are  considered,  it  is  easy  to  see  how  moving 
pullets  about  retards  laying.  The  fact  that  it  does  is  rec- 
ognized in  the  practice  often  adopted  of  moving  pullets 
that  are  coming  to  laying  a  little  too  early  to  suit  their 
owner,  and  perhaps  moving  them  several  times,  to  hold 
them  back  as  long  as  possible.  But  for  every  such  case 
there  are  scores  of  instances  of  retarded  laying  plainly 
attributable  to  frequent  shifts  or  to  other  incidents  un- 
favorable to  development  during  the  growing  period,  and 
poultry  keepers  almost  invariably  either  overlook  the  in- 
fluence of  these  things  upon  development  or  greatly  un- 
derestimate their  effects. 

When  to   Move  Pullets  to  Winter  Quarters 

While  a  change  at  any  time  seems  to  have  some  re- 
tarding effect  upon  the  development  of  chickens — unless 
made  with  such  care  that  they  are  not  in  the  least  dis- 
turbed by  it — pullets  seem  to  be  most  suspectible  to  the 
influence  of  change  and  the  excitement  that  often  ac- 
company their  establishment  in  new  quarters,  in  the  three 
or  four  weeks  before  they  begin  to  lay.  If  moved  after 
they  have  been  laying  for  a  little  while,  with  some  care 
to  make  the  change  as  little  disturbing  as  possible,  they 
will  often  hardly  stop  laying  at  all;  but  it  is  quite  the 
common  thing  for  pullets  moved  just  as  they  were  about 
to  begin  to  lay  to  produce  no  eggs  for  several  weeks  or 
months.  So  whenever  it  can  be  done,  the  pullets  should 
be  put  in  their  permanent  laying  quarters  a  full  month 
before  they  are  expected  to  begin  laying.  The  arrange- 
ments for  moving  them  should  be  made  with  a  view  to 
disturbing  them  as  little  as  possible,  and  they  should 
be  handled  gently,  even  if  that  does  take  considerably 
more  time  than  the  average  rough-and-ready  poultry 
keeper  gives  to  such  jobs. 

Rations  for  Pullets  for  Egg  Production 

The  feeding  of  pullets  for  egg  production  generally 
continues,  with  some  modification,  the  ration-  they  had 
been  receiving  while  in  the  growing  coops.  To  keep  the 

71 


72 


HOW  TO  FEED  POULTRY  FOR  ANY  PURPOSE  WITH  PROFIT 


different  rations  recommended  by  different  institutions 
and  authorities  in  series  that  readily  connect  those  from 
the  same  place,  the  following  rations  have  been  given 
the  numbers  which  correspond  with  the  chick  rations  from 
the  same  sources,  but  with  the  letter  b  added: 

Ration    No.   Ib— Rations  Recommended   By  the  United   States 
Department  of  Agriculture 

I — Scratch  Mixture — Equal  parts  by  weight  of  wheat,  oats 
and  cracked  corn.  Mash  mixture — Equal  parts  by  weight 
of  corn  meal,  wheat  bran,  wheat  middling,  and  meat 
scrap. 

Feed  the  grain  twice  a  day  in  a  litter  of  straw  or 
other  material  to  compel  exercise.  A  good  way  is  to 
feed  rather  light  in  the  morning  and  heavier  at  night. 
The  mash  may  be  fed  either  wet  or  dry.  If  fed  wet  we 
prefer  to  give  it  at  noon  with  the  grain  feeds  morning 
and  evening,  but  there  is  no  objection  to  giving  the 
mash  either  morning  or  evening,  and  one  of  the  grain 
feeds  at  noon.  If  the  mash  is  fed  dry  it  should  be  given 
in  a  hopper  from  which  the  hens  can  help  themselves  at 
will.  If  the  hens  are  on  good  range  they  will  need  no 
other  green  feed.  For  hens  that  have  no  range  in  sum- 
mer, and  for  all  hens  in  winter  some  form  of  succulent 
green  feed  should*  be  provided.  Oyster  shell  should  be 
supplied,  also  grit  and  gravel  if  these  are  not  to  be  ob- 
tained from  the  land. 

II — Scratch  Mixture — Two  parts  of  cracked  corn  and  one  of 
oats.  Mash — Table  scraps,  run  through  a  meat  chopper, 
and  mixed  with  corn  meal,  bran,  or  other  ground  grain. 
Feed  the  scratch  mixture  twice  a  day,  the  mash 
once.  It  is  also  a  good  plan  with  this  ration  to  keep  a 
hopper  of  the  dry  mash  described  in  the  preceding  ra- 
tion before  the  hens.  Green  feed  should  be  furnished 
as  liberally  as  possible,  and  the  usual  feed  accessories. 

Ration   No.  2fo — Ontario   Agricultural  College   Ration 

I — Method   of   Feeding  Winter   Laying  Stock. 

Scratch  Mixture — Equal  parts  of  wheat,  cracked  corn 
and  buckwheat;  this  is  fed  morning  and  evening.  The 
morning  feed  is  given  in  litter  late  the  previous  even- 
ing. The  evening  feed  is  given  in  troughs,  and  what 
the  birds  do  not  eat  is  taken  up. 

Mash — Rolled  oats  kept  constantly  before  the  hens  in 
hoppers. 

At  noon  mangels,  cabbage,  or  clover  hay  is  fed.  But- 
termilk only  is  given  to  drink. 

II — Feeding  When  Wet  Mashes  Are  Used. 

Early  in  the  morning  scratch  mixture  as  in  the  above, 
in  litter,  at  the  rate  of  about  half  a  handful  to  a  fowl. 
At  noon  a  lighter  feed  of  the  grain — about  two  handfuls 
to  a  dozen  fowls,  and  all  the  roots  they  will  eat.  Cab- 
bage is  also  sometimes  given  at  noon. 

(It  ie  obvious  that  in  this  case  the  HANDFULS  are 
large  handfuls,  what  can  be  scooped  in  the  hand  to 
scatter  near  the  feeder,  rather  than  what  could  be  held 
in  the  hand  to  carry  or  to  throw  widely  broadcast). 

About  four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  a  mash  is  given. 
This  mash  is  composed  of  about  equal  parts  of  bran, 
shorts,  oat  chop,  and  corn  meal  (during  cold  weather) 
and  to  this  is  added  about  ten  per  cent  of  beef  scrap 
or  animal  meal — unless  cut  bone,  or  cooked  meat  is 
available.  These  feeds  are  thoroughly  mixed  dry,  and 
then  mixed  with  steeped  clover,  prepared  by  getting  a 
bucket  of  clover  leaves,  or  cut  clover  hay,  and  scalding 
it  with  boiling  water.  This  is  done  early  in  the  morn- 
ing and  the  bucket  is  kept  covered  with  a  thick  sack 
throughout  the  day.  The  aim  is  to  have  about  one- 
third  of  the  ration  in  bulk  cut  clover.  After  the  mash 
a  small  amount  of  grain  is  fed  in  litter.  Water  is  kept 
before  the  birds  all  the  time. 


Ration  No.  3b — Cornell  Ration  for  Laying  Pullets 

I — Grain   Mixtures.    Parts  by   Weight. 

July  to  about  middle  of  September — 1  cracked  corn, 
1  wheat,  1  oats.  September  to  December — 3  cracked 
corn,  4  wheat,  1  oats.  December  to  latter  part  of 
January— 4  cracked  corn,  3  wheat,  1  oats.  Last  of 
January  to  about  March  1st — 3  cracked  corn,  3 
wheat,  1  oats,  1  buckwheat.  March  to  last  of  July — 
4  cracked  corn,  3  wheat,  1  oats. 
Mash — 

Corn   meal   2   parts 

Wheat   middlings    2   parts 

Wheat  bran  1   part 

Meat   scrap    2   parts 

Alfalfa    meal     —.1   part 

Grain  fed  morning  and  evening  in  litter — mash  fed  wet 
at  noon.  Grit,  oyster  shell,  and  water  always  before  the 
birds.  Mangels  and  green  cut  bones  given  occasionally  when 
they  are  confined  to  the  house. 

II- — Same   as   I,    except   mash   fed   dry   in   hoppers. 

Ration    No.    41) — New    Jersey    Experiment    Station    Ration 

I — New  Jersey  Station  Ration. 
Scratch  Mixture  No.  1: 

Wheat    100   pounds 

Oats     100   pounds 

Scratch  Mixture  No.   2: 

Cracked    corn    200   pounds 

Wheat    1 00   pounds 

Oats    100   pounds 

Buckwheat    100   pounds 

Dry  Mash  No.   1: 

Wheat   bran   200   pounds 

Wheat   middlings  200   pounds 

Ground  oats  100   pounds 

Corn    meal    100   pounds 

Gluten    feed    100   pounds 

Alfalfa    » .....100   pounds 

Meat   scrap   ..  ....200   pounds 

Dry  Mash  No.   2: 

Wheat   bran   200   pounds 

Wheat   middlings 100   pounds 

Ground    oats    100   pounds 

Gluten    feed    50   pounds 

Meat   scrap   25   pounds 

Scratch  mixture  No.  1  is  fed  about  9  o'clock  in  the 

morning    about    5    quarts    to    100    birds    the    year    round. 

Scratch    mixture    No.    2    is    fed    at    4    to    5    o'clock    in    the 

afternoon,   according   to   the   season,   about   10   pounds  to 

100  birds. 

Mash  No.  1  is  kept  before  the  birds  all  the  time  in 

hoppers    in    winter.      In    summer    Mash     No.    2    is    used. 

These  mashes  are  compounded   for  Leghorns.     If  fed  to 

heavier  fowls  the  hoppers  should  be  kept  closed   a  part 

of    the    day — as    much    as    necessary    to    insure    that    the 

birds  will  not  eat  so  much  mash  that  they  will  become 

too  fat. 
II- — New  Jersey  Laying  Contest  Ration. 

Scratch  Mixture: 

Winter — 2  parts  cracked  corn,  1  part  wheat,  1  part 
oats.  Summer — 1  part  cracked  corn,  1  part  wheat. 
1  part  oats. 

Dry  Mash: 

Wheat   bran   100  pounds 

Wheat  middlings  or  low 

grade   flour 100   pounds 

Ground  oats  100   pounds 

Corn    meal    100   pounds 

Meat    scrap   100   pounds 

Grain    fed    in    litter    morning    and    evening.       Mash 

in  hoppers  before  the  birds  all  the  time.     In  general  the 


A  TEAR'S  RATIONS  FOR  A  HEAVY-LAYING  LEGHORN  HEN 


FEEDIXG  FOR  EGG  PRODUCTION 


73 


amount  of  grain  consumed  is  slightly  in  excess  of  the 
mash,  but  in  periods  of  very  heavy  laying-  more  mash 
is  consumed. 

Kilt  ion    No.  5b— Ohio   Agricultural   College   Ration 

I Regular    ration    for    layers    at    Ohio    University    Poultry 

Plant. 
Scratch   Mixture: 

Cracked    corn    3    parts,    wheat    2    parts,    oats 
1   part. 

"Dry  Mash: 

Corn    meal    4   pounds 

Wheat   middlings   6   pounds 

Wheat   bran   4   pounds 

Mt  at   scrap   4   pounds 

Oil    meal    1   pound 

Alfalfa    meal    1   pound 

Charcoal    %    pound 

Salt    1   tablespoon 

The  grain  is  fed  in  litter,  a  light  feed  in  the  morn- 
ing a  full  feed  in  the  evening.  The  mash  is  fed  in 
hoppers  which  are  open  all  the  time  or  closed  a  part 
of  the  time  as  necessary  to  have  the  birds  eat  about 
one-half  as  much  mash  as  grain.  Green  feed  is  given 
freely,  and  grit  and  shell  supplied  in  hoppers. 

II — Ohio    Experiment   Station   Ration. 
Scratch    Mixture: 

Cracked    corn    4    parts,    wheat    2    parts,   oats 
1   part. 

Dry    Mash: 

Corn    meal    3   pounds 

Wheat    bran    2   pounds 

Wheat   middlings 1   pound 

Meat   scrap   2   pounds 

This    is   fed    in    the   same    manner    as    the    preceding. 

Ration    No.   «b— Massachusetts   Experiment   Station   Ration 

Scratch   Mixtures: 

I — Cracked  corn  2  parts,  wheat  1  part. 
II — Cracked  corn  3   parts,  wheat  2   parts. 
Ill — Cracked    corn    2    parts,    wheat    1    part,    oats    1    part. 

Mashes: 

I — Wheat   bran    - 200   pounds 

Wheat  middlings  100  pounds 

Corn    meal    100   pounds 

Ground    alfalfa   100   pounds 

Meat    scrap    50  pounds 

Linseed    meal    50   pounds 

Gluten    meal    50   pounds 

II — Wheat    bran    .-. 100   pounds 

Wheat   middlings 100   pounds 

Corn   meal   100   pounds 

Fine  ground  oats  100   pounds 

Ground    alfalfa    100   pounds 

Meat   scrap  100   pounds 

HI — Wheat    bran    100  pounds 

Wheat  middlings   100  pounds 

Corn    meal    100   pounds 

Ground    oats    100   pounds 

Gluten    feed    100  pounds 

Linseed    meal    100   pounds 

Meat  scrap  100  pounds 

Any  desired  combination  of  the  different  scratch 
mixtures  and  mashes  may  be  made.  The  method  of 
feeding  is  to  keep  dry  mash  before  the  hens  all  the 
time,  and  give  a  light  wet  mash  of  the  same  ingredi- 
ents about  2  p.  m.  In  the  morning,  sometime  between 
6  and  9  o'clock,  according  to  convenience,  a  light  feed 
of  the  scratch  mixture  is  given  in  litter.  From  3:30  to 
5  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  according  to  the  time  of 
year,  a  full  feed  of  the  scratch  mixture  is  given.  Man- 
gels and  cabbage  are  fed  freely,  and  shell  and  grit  kept 
before  the  hens. 

Ration  No.  7b— Maine  Experiment  Station  Ration  for  Pullets 

Grain: 

Morning — 4   quarts   cracked   corn   in   litter   6   to   8   inches 
deep  to   100   hens;   10   o'clock,   2   quarts  wheat,  and   2 
quarts    oats    to    each    100    hens. 
Dry  Mash: 

First    month   in   the   laying   house    (September). 

Bran    300   pounds 

Corn    meal    100   pounds 

Low    grade   flour    100   pounds 

Meat   scrap   '. 100   pounds 

Second   month   in   laying   house. 

Bran     200  pounds 

Corn   meal   100   pounds 

Low    grade    flour    100   pounds 

Gluten  meal   100   pounds 

Meat    scrap    100   pounds 

Third   month — same   as   the   second  with   the   addition   of 
50   pounds  of  linseed   meal. 

Fourth   month — same  as  the   second  month  given  above. 

Fifth  moitth — same  as  third  month  as  given  above. 

From  this  time  on  50  pounds  of  linseed  meal  is  put 

into    the    mash    each    alternate   month.      The    advantages 

believed    to    result    from    this     method    of     varying    the 

mash  are,  better  vitality  and  more  even  egg  production. 

When    the    birds    are    not    on    range    sprouted    oats    are 

used   freely   for  green   feed.      Grit  and   oyster   shell   are 

always   provided. 


Ration    No.     Sb — Wisconsin     Experiment     Station     Ration 

I — Feed  in  deep  litter,  a  mixture  of  grains  in  the  propor- 
tion of  4  pounds  cracked  corn  to  1  pound  each  of  oats 
and  barley.  Give  this  twice  a  day — a  light  feed  in  the 
morning  feed  in  the  morning  and  a  full  feed  at  night. 

Feed  in  hopper  (all  the  time)  a  mash  mixture  at  the 
rate  of  100  pounds  each  of  bran,  middlings,  ground 
<;orn.  and  gluten  feed,  50  pounds  of  meat  scrap,  and  2 
pounds  of  salt. 

Feed  in  trough  (three  times  a  week)  same  mixture 
of  ground  feed  moistened  with  milk. 

For    green    feed    give    .'prouted    oats     and     mangels. 
Give   grit,    oyster   shell,   charcoal,    and   water. 
II— Feed   in   deep   litter,    scratch   mixture   in   the   proportions 
of  4  pounds  of  cracked  corn  to  1  pound  of  barley.    Feed 
light   in   the  morning  and  heavy  at  night. 

Feed  in  hopper  (all  the  time)  mash  of  equal  parts 
bran,  middlings,  and  corn  meal,  salted  slightly.  Green 
feed  and  accessories  as  above. 

Ration    No.   9b— Minnesota    Experiment   Station   Ration 

I — Scratch    Mixture: 

Cracked   corn  2  parts,  wheat  2   parts,   oats   1  part. 
Mash: 

Bran    100   pounds 

Middlings    100  pounds 

Corn    meal    100   pounds 

Green    cut    bone    100   pounds 

Pea   meal   : 50  pounds 

Give  all  the  scratch  feed  they  will  eat  the  first  thing  in 
the  morning.  About  11  o'clock  give  the  mash,  moist  but  not 
sloppy.  After  eating  this  they  should  have  all  the  green 
feed  they  will  eat.  About  two  hours  before  dark,  feed 
grain,  same  as  in  the  morning.  Keep  water,  grit,  and  ground 
oyster  shell  always  before  them. 

II — Scratch  Mixture: 

Equal  parts  by  weight,  of  cracked  corn,  wheat,  and 
oats.    (When    corn    is    difficult    to    obtain    barley    is 
substituted  for  it).  - 
Mash: 

Equal  parts  by  weight,  of  finely  ground  corn,  oats, 

bran,    and    shorts.     Meat    feed    is    supplied    either    by 

adding  about  10  per  cent  meat  scrap  to  the  mash  or 

by  giving  the  hens  all  the  milk  they  will  drink. 

The  grain  mixture  is  given  twice  a  day,  in  litter,  at  the 

rate  of  about  7  pounds  to  each  100  hens  in  the  morning,  and 

about   8   pounds   in    the   evening.      The    mash    may   be   given 

either   dry   or  moist.      When   fed  dry   it   is   kept   before   the 

birds   in   hoppers.      When   fed   moist   it   is   given  about  noon, 

wet  with  either  water  or  milk,  and  sometimes  with  steeped 

clover    leaves    added.      For    green'  feed    when    the    birds    are 

confined  to  the  houses  about  ten  pounds  of  mangels  a  day 

are  allowed  to  each  100  hens,  or  a  bunch  of  clover  hay  tied 

and  suspended  by  a  string  is  furnished  from  which  the  hens 

eat  as  they  wish.    Water,  grit,  and  shell  are  provided. 

Ration  No.  lOb — Purdue  Experiment  Station  Ration 

I — Scratch    Mixture:     Cracked    corn    2    parts,    wheat    2 

parts,    oats   1    part. 
Mash: 

Bran    5        pounds 

Shorts    5       pounds 

Meat    scrap   3%   pounds 

Grain  scattered  in  deep  straw  litter  in  the  morning  and 
evening,  about  one-third  as  much  in  the  morning  as  in  the 
afternoon.  Dry  mash  in  hopper  always  open.  Water,  grit, 
and  shell  were  always  accessible. 

II — Instead  of  the  meat  scraps  in  the  above  ration  give 
all  the  milk  the  birds  will  drink.  In  winter  in- 
crease the  corn  by  1  part,  and  reduce  the  wheat  the 
same  amount. 

Ill — Instead  of  meat  scraps  in  ration  use  about  the 
same  proportion — more  rather  than  less  —  of  fish 
scraps. 

Ration    No.    lib— Oklahoma    Experiment    Station    Ration 

1 — Scratch  Mixture:  Cracked  corn  3  parts,  .wheat  3 
parts,  oats  1  part. 

Mash: 

Mill   run    (bran  and   middlings) 7  pounds 

Corn    meal    7  pounds 

Meat   scrap  3   pounds 

Alfalfa   leaves  2  pounds 

Charcoal    %    pound 

Give  the  scratch  mixture  in  litter  twice  daily,  and  keep 

the   dry    mash    always    before    the    birds   in    hoppers.      Feed 

sprouted    oats,    cabbage,    mangels    or    steamed     alfalfa    for 

green    feed,    and    keep    the    birds    supplied    with    shell,    grit, 

•  and  water. 

II — Same    as    above    but    scratch     mixture     equal     parts 

cracked  corn  and  kafir  corn. 
Ill — Scratch  Mixture:     Equal   parts  of  wheat  and   kafir 

corn. 

Mash: 

Mill    run    .-. 7  pounds 

Corn  chop  10  pounds 

Meat    scrap    2  pounds 

Bone    meal    1  pound 

IV — Same  as  III,  but 

Mash: 

Mill    run    8  pounds 

Corn  chop  7  pounds 

Cottonseed    meal 3  pounds 

Bone    meal 1  pound 


74 


HOW  TO  FEED  POULTRY  FOR  ANY  PURPOSE  WITH  PROFIT 


Ration    Xo.   12b — Missouri    University   Ration 

I — Scratch  Mixture:    In  winter,  2  parts  cracked  corn,   1 

part    wheat;    in    summer,    1     part     cracked     corn,    2 

parts   wheat. 
Mash — Equal    parts   by  weight,   of   bran,   middlings,   corn 

meal,   and   meat   scrap. 
II — Scratch   Mixture:    In  winter,   wheat   6   parts,   cracked 

corn   3   parts,   oats   3   parts,   buckwheat   3    parts. 

Mash: 

Corn    meal    6   parts 

Middlings     6   parts 

Bran    3   parts 

Alfalfa    meal    1   part 

Oil    meal   1   part 

Meat    scrap    5   parts 

III — Scratch  feed — Early  morning  and  night,  cracked 
corn;  at  noon,  equal  parts  of  wheat  and  oats. 

Mash — Bran  3  parts,  middlings  1  part,  corn  meal  1  part, 
meat  scrap  1  part,  occasionally  add  1  part  oil  meal. 

IV — Scratch   mixture   same  as  in  I. 

Mash — Ground  oats,  with  buttermilk  or  sour  milk  as 
a  drink. 

V — Scratch  Mixture: 

Cracked    corn    6   parts 

Wheat    6   part 

Oats .'....4  parts 

Barley    2   parts 

Kafir   corn   1   part 

Buckwheat 1   part 

Mash: 

Bran   - 2   parts 

Corn   meal 1   part 

Gluten  meal  1   part 

Ground  oats  1   part 

Ground  oats  1   part 

Middlings    1   part 

Meat  scrap  : '. 1  part 

The  method  of  feeding  all  these  rations  is  the  same — 
a  light  feed  of  the  grain  in  the  morning;  the  mash  fed 
either  in  hoppers,  or  in  troughs,  at  noon;  a  heavy  feed  of 
grain  in  the  evening — green  feed  given  frequently,  and 
water,  grit,  and  shell  kept  before  the  birds  all  the  time. 

Ration  No.  13b— Manitoba  Agricultural  College  Ration 

Scratch  mixture — wheat  2  parts,  cracked  corn  1  part. 

Mash — crushed  oats  fed  dry. 

Give  cabbage  or  mangels  once  a  day,  all  the  buttermilk 
the  birds  will  drink,  and  keep  water,  shell,  and  grit  always 
before  them. 

Ration   No.   14b— Michigan   Experiment    Station   Ration 

Scratch  mixture — Cracked  corn,  wheat,  and  oats,  in  pro- 
portions to  suit  the  season,  and  the  condition  and 
appetite  of  the  hens. 

Mash: 

Bran    100   pounds 

Middlings    75   pounds 

Corn  meal  100   pounds 

Beef  scrap  100   pounds 

Oil    meal    25  pounds 

If  the  mash  is  fed  dry  in  hoppers,  give  a  light  feed  of 
grain  in  the  morning  in  litter;  at  noon  open  the  hoppers  and 
let  the  hens  have  mash  at  will  until  about  4  o'clock;  then 
close  the  hoppers  and  give  a  good  feed  of  grain  in  litter. 
Give  plenty  of  green  feed,  shell,  and  grit,  and  keep  water 
before  the  birds.  If  the  mash  is  fed  moist,  give  it  at  noon. 


Ration    Xo.    lob — Xorth    Carolina    Experiment    Station    Ration 

I — Scratch  mixture — cracked  corn  2  parts,  wheat  1  part. 
Mash: 

Corn  meal  4  parts 

b,  an    4  parts 

Meat    meal    2   parts 

Bone    meal    2   parts 

II — Sciatch   mixture   as   in   I. 
Mash: 

Corn    meal    4   parts 

Bran   4  parts 

Cottonseed  meal  4  parts 

Bone    meal    2   parts 

In  both  rations  the  grain  is  fed  twice  a  day  in  litter, 
and  the  mash  is  kept  before  the  birds  in  hoppers.  The  hens 
have  the  run  of  yards  in  Bermuda  grass  throughout  the 
winitr,  and  occasionally  a  run  on  plots  of  oats  and  clover. 
Thv.y  aie  kept  supplied  with  water,  shell,  and  grit. 

Ration  Xo.  16b — Montana  Experiment   Station  Ration 

Scratch  mixture — Equal  parts  by  measure,  of  wheat, 
oats,  barley  and  peas. 

Mash: 

Wheat    bran    10   pounds 

Shorts    10   pounds 

Ground   oat  -    10   pounds 

Ground   barley  20   pounds 

Meat   scrap   10  pounds 

Flax    seed    10   pounds 

Salt    26   ounces 

The    flax    seed    is    given    in    alternate    months    only. 

Ration    Xo.    17b— Washington   Agricultural    College    Ration 

I — Scratch  mixture — Equal  parts  by  measure,  of  cracked 

corn,  wheat  and  oats. 

Mash — Equal  parts  by  weight,  of  coarse  bran,  wheat 
middlings,  ground  oats,  corn  meal,  and  10  per  cent 
of  meat  scrap. 

Give  a  fairly  liberal  feed  of  grain  in  litter  in  the  morn- 
ing, and  a  heavier  feed  toward  evening;  keep  the  mash  be- 
fore the  fowls  in  hoppers.  Give  grass,  kale,  cabbage,  etc., 
for  green  feed.  Give  both  milk  and  water  in  separate  ves- 
sels. Keep  shell  and  grit  before  them. 
II — Scratch  Mixture: 

Wheat    , 250   pounds 

Clipped  barley  .'. 100   pounds 

Sunflower   seed   35   pounds 

Mash: 

Bran  125   pounds 

Middlings   -90   pounds 

Ground   oats  100   pounds 

Oil  meal  : 25   pounds 

Pish   meal   50   pounds 

Charcoal — flaked     1   bucket 

The  scratch  mixture  is  fed  in  litter  twice  a  day;  the 
mash  kept  before  the  hens  in  hoppers.  Green  feed  and  ac- 
ces.  ories  as  in  I.  When  corn  is  reasonable  in  price  it  is 
used  in  the  scratch  feed  in  preference  to  barley.  (The  rather 
unusual  proportions  in  the  mash  in  this  case  result  from 
the  fact  that  mill  stuffs  in  the  vicinity  are  not  always  put 
up  in  standard  100-pound  bags). 

Ration    Xo.    ISb— Oregon    Agricultural    College    Ration 

Scratch  mixture — Oats  25   pounds,   barley   10   pounds. 

Mash: 

Mill  feed   (bran  and  shorts) 5   pounds 

Ground  oats  or  barley  5   pounds 

Ground  corn  5   pounds 

Linseed   meal   5   pounds  or 


THREE    SMALL.    POULTRY    RANCHES    INSIDE    THE    CITY    LIMITS    OF    PETALUMA,    CALIF. 

Each    one   keeps   300    to   500    layers. 


FEEDING  FOR  EGG  PRODUCTION 


75 


Cocoanut   meal   7  pounds 

Meat  or  fish  scrap  7   pounds 

The  grain  should  be  fed  in  litter.  The  mash  may  be 
given  either  dry  or  moist.  If  fed  moist  the  amount  of  ani- 
mal matter  in  it  should  be  reduced  and  some  meat  or  fish 
scrap  fed  in  a  hopper. 

Ration    No.    19b— California    Experiment    Station    Ration 

Scratch  mixture — Whole  or  rolled  barley  2  parts,  Egyp- 
tian corn  or  milo  maize  1  part,  cracked  corn  1  part. 
•  Mash: 

Wheat   bran   50   pounds 

Middlings    50  pounds 

Ground   barley   or   oats   50   pounds 

Soy   bean    or    linseed   meal 10   pounds 

Cocoanut   or    soy   bean,    or    linseed 
or  cottonseed  meal,  or  ground 

beans   10   pounds 

Meat  scrap  or  fish  scrap  30   pounds 

Pine  granulated   charcoal  5   pounds 

Pine   salt  1  pound 

The  mash  may  be  fed  either  dry  or  moist.  Wheat  may 
be  used  in  the  scratch  mixture  in  moderate  quantity  to  re- 
place all  or  a  part  of  any  one  of  the  other  grains.  If  sour 
milk  or  buttermilk  can  be  kept  constantly  before  the  hens, 
no  meat  scrap  need  be  fed.  Fresh  raw  ground  bone  may 
also  be  substituted  for  meat  scrap  if  fed  at  the  rate  of  a 
half  an  ounce  a  day. 

Ration    No.  20b— Kansas   Experiment   Station  Ration 

Scratch   mixture — Wheat   2    parts,   cracked   corn   2   parts, 

oats   1   part. 
Mash: 

Shorts    6  pounds 

Bran    3   pounds 

Corn  meal  6  pounds 

Meat   scrap   5   pounds 

Alfalfa   meal    1  pound 

Give  green  feed  liberally,  and  substitute  milk  for  meat 
scrap  whenever  a  supply  of  it  is  available. 

Kafir  corn  and  buckwheat  may  be  included  in  the  grain 
mixture,  or  substituted  for  some  of  the  other  ingredients. 
Other  meals,  such  as  linseed  meal,  pea  meal,  soy  bean  meal, 
and  cottonseed  meal  may  be  added  to  the  mash  in  small 
quantities. 

Ration    No.    27I>— >1:ir\  land    Experiment    Station    Ration 

Scratch    mixture — Equal   parts    of   cracked   corn,   wheat, 

and   oats. 
Mash: 

Bran 100  pounds 

Middlings    50   pounds 

Corn  meal  50   pounds 

Linseed  meal   50  pounds 

Meat   scrap   50   pounds 

Charcoal   2   pounds 

Salt 2  pounds 

To  a  pen  of  40  hens  two  quarts  of  the  grain  mixture  is 
riven  early  in  the  morning.  Between  8  and  9  o'clock  from 
t  to  5  pounds  of  cabbage.  At  noon  the  same  amount  of 
jrain  as  in  the  morning.  The  dry  mash  is  accessible  to  the 
}irds  at  all  times.  Fresh  water,  shell,  and  grit  are  kept 
by  them. 

Ration    No.   28b— Kentucky   Agricultural    College   Ration 


Grain  Mixtures: 

Pounds 

I — Cracked  corn  50 

Heavy    oats    20 

Barley    20 

Wheat    10 

II — Cracked  corn  .70 

Heavy  oats  30 

III — Cracked  corn. 
Dry  Mashes: 

I — Ship    stuff   

Corn    meal 

Ground     oats. 
Meat  scraps  . 

II— Ship    stuff   

Corn    meal    ... 
Meat  scrap  ... 

Ill — Corn  meal   

Meat  scrap  ... 
Ground    oats 


or 
or 
or 
or 
or 
or 


Quarts 

30 
20 

13J4 
5% 
42 
30 


.40 
.20 
.20 
.20 
.50 
.30 
.20 
.40 
.25 
.20 


or  60% 

or  18 

or  46% 

or  11 

or  75% 

or  27 

or  11 

or  36 

or  13% 

or  46% 

Alfalfa   meal   15  or  27 

Any  one  of  the  grain  mixtures  may  be  fed  with  any 
of  the  mashes.  The  grain  should  be  scattered  in  litter, 
about  one-third  of  the  total  amount  fed  in  the  morning  and 
two-thirds  in  the  evening.  The  dry  mash  should  be  kept 
before  the  birds  all  the  time.  Green  feed  should  be  fed  to 
all  hens  during  the  winter,  and  in  the  summer  to  birds  in 
confinement.  Water,  shell,  grit,  and  charcoal  should  be  kept 
before  the  birds  all  the  time. 

Ration    No.   29b — West    Virginia    Experiment  Station    Ration 

Scratch  Feed: 

Cracked  corn  60  pounds 

Wheat   60  pounds 

Oats    40  pounds 

Barley   20  pounds 

Buckwheat    .  10  pounds 

Mash: 

Wheat   bran   200  pounds 

Corn  meal  100  pounds 


Ground   oats  100   pounds 

Gluten   feed   100  pounds 

Wheat   middlings  100   pounds 

Meat   scrap   100   pounds 

The  grain  is  fed  in  litter  twice  a  day.  The  mash  may 
be  fed  either  wet  or  dry.  Cabbage,  mangels,  sprouted  oats, 
cut  alfalfa,  and  beet  pulp  'may  be  used  for  succulent  feed. 
Grit  and  shell  are  provided. 

Ration    No.    3Ob— Louisiana    Agricultural    College    Ration 

Scratch  grain-  Summer — Morning,  oats:  night,  oats  3 
parts,  cracked  corn  1  part.  Winter  —  Morning, 
cracked  corn  1  part,  oats  2  parts;  night,  corn. 

Mash: 

Corn    meal    30  pounds 

Wheat     bran    30   pounds 

Cottonseed    meal    15   pounds 

Keep  the  mash  before  the  birds  at  all  times  Give  other 
grains  occasionally  as  available  to  add  variety.  Give  suc- 
culent green  feed  and  provide  grit  and  shell. 

Ration    No.    31 1> — Texas    Experiment    Station    Ration 

Scratch  mixture  —  A  variety  of  grains,  principally 
cracked  corn,  supplemented'  with  milo,  wheat,  oats, 
etc.  Or,  milo  may  be  uted  as  the  sole  or  principal 
grain.  The  mash  given  is  especially  for  use  with 
milo. 

Mash: 

I — Wheat    bran 70   pounds 

Wheat     shorts    50  pounds 

Cottonseed    meal    60   pounds 

Milo    meal    20  pounds 

II — Wheat    bran    50   pounds 

Wheat    shorts    60   pounds 

Cottonseed    meal    30   pounds 

Meat    scrap    22.5   pounds 

Milo    meal    .-.20  pounds 

The  grains  are  fed  as  a  scratch  feed  in  litter,  a  light 
feed  in  the  morning  and  a  full  feed  in  the  evening.  The 
mash  is  fed  in  hoppers  which  are  opened  at  noon  and  left 
open  until  the  grain  is  fed  in  the  evening.  Green  feed  is 
supplied  plentifully,  and  water  and  some  kind  of  shell- 
forming  material  are  kept  before  the  birds  all  the  time. 

Ration  No.  32b — New  Hampshire  Agricultural  College  Ration 

Scratch  Mixture: 

Cracked    corn    6  parts 

Oats 6  parts 

Buckwheat 4  parts 

Rye  5  parts 

Mash: 

Corn  meal  100  pounds 

Bran    100  pounds 

White    middlings    .-.100  pounds 

Ground  oats  100  pounds 

Cut  clover 100  pounds 

Meat   scrap   50  pounds 

The  grain  is  fed  three  times  a  day  in  deep  litter.  In 
the  coldest  winter  months  the  quantity  of  corn  is  doubled. 
If  rye  and  buckwheat  are  not  available,  wheat  screenings 
are  used  in  their  place.  The  dry  mash  is  kept  always  be- 
fore the  hens.  It  is  varied  occasionally  by  the  addition  of 
one  part  of  pea  meal,  barley  meal,  or  rye  meal.  Cabbage, 
mangels,  turnips,  and  sprouted  oats  are  used  for  succulence. 

Ration   No.  33b— Macdonald   Agricultural   College  Ration 

Scratch    mixture — In    winter,    2    parts    cracked    corn,    2 
parts  wheat,  1  part  oats  or  buckwheat.     In  summer 
use  less  corn. 
Mash: 

Wheat  bran  200  pounds 

Crushed   oats  120  pounds 

Corn  meal  100  pounds 

Middlings    100  pounds 

Meat    scraps   60  pounds 

Charcoal    r 20  pounds 

The  grain  is  fed  in  litter  morning  and  evening.  The 
mash  is  fed  at  noon  in  troughs,  having  been  moistened  with 
milk  or  water.  The  mash  may  be  fed  dry  in  hoppers,  if 
desired.  Cabbage,  mangels,  turnips,  and  sprouted  oats  are 
used  for  green  feed.  Water,  grit,  and  shell  are  kept  before 
the  hens  all  the  time.  Milk  is  given  when  available. 

Ration   No.   ::  lit — Storrs,   Connecticut,  Laying   Contest  Ration 

I — Ration  Used  in  Earlier  Contests. 

Scratch  Mixture: 

Cracked  corn  60  pounds 

Wheat    60   pounds 

Heavy   white    oats   40  pounds 

Barley   20   pounds 

Kafir   corn   10  pounds 

Buckwheat    10  pounds 

Dry  Mash: 

Coarse   wheat   bran   200   pounds 

Corn  meal  100  pounds 

Gluten    feed    100  pounds 

Ground  oats  100   pounds 

Standard  middlings  75   pounds 

Pish    scrap    45   pounds 

Meat   scrap   45   pounds 

Low   grade   flour  25   pounds 

II — Ration  Used   in  Recent  Contests: 

Scratch    mixture — Equal    parts    of    wheat    and    cracked 
corn. 


76 


HOW  TO  FEED  POULTRY  FOR  ANY  PURPOSE  WITH  PROFIT 


Mash: 

Wheat   bran   100   pounds 

Corn  meal  100   pounds 

Ground  oats  100   pounds 

Flour   middlings   100   pounds 

Fish    scrap    50  pounds 

Meat   scrap   v 50  pounds 

The  grain  is  fed  two  or  more  times  a  day  in  litter,  as 
seems  necessary  to  keep  the  hens  busy.  The  mash  is  fed 
dry,  the  hens  having'  access  to  it  at  all  times.  The  prin- 
cipal succulent  feed  in  winter  is  mangels.  In  summer  the 
yards  furnish  green  feed.  Grit,  shell,  charcoal,  and  water 
are  always  accessible. 

Ration   No.   Sob^Delaware   Agricultural   College   Contest 
Ration 

Same  as  No.  34b-I,  except  that  15  pounds  less  each  of 
fish  scrap  and  meat  scrap  are  put  in  the  dry  mash,  and  10 
pounds  of  coarse  meat  scrap  is  added  to  the  scratch  feed 
formula. 

Ration   No.   36b— Missouri   State   Experiment   Station   Contest 
Ration 

Scratch  mixture — In  spring  and  fall,  equal  parts  of  corn 
and  wheat;  in  winter,  2  parts  cracked  corn  and  1  part  wheat; 
in  summer,  1  part  cracked  corn,  and  2  parts  wheat. 

Dry  mash — Ground  oats,  to  which  has  been  added  10% 
of  meat  scrap,  and  a  little  charcoal  and  salt.  When  ground 
oats  are  not  available,  the  mash  is  of  equal  parts  bran, 
middlings,  and  corn  meal,  with  the  other  ingredients  added 
as  to  the  oats. 

The  mash  is  kept  before  the  hens  all  the  time.  The 
grain  is  fed  as  follows:  Each  morning  1  pint  to  ten  hens, 
and  at  night  a  pint  and  a  half  to  ten  hens.  Green  feed  is 
provided,  also  grit  and  shell,  and  fresh  water  are  always 
accessible. 

Ration    37b— British    Columbia   Laying   Contest    Ration 

Scratch  mixture — Winter,  equal  parts  wheat  and  cracked 
corn;   summer,  wheat   3   parts,   cracked  corn  1  part. 

Mash: 

Ground  oats  42  pounds 

Shorts    22   pounds 

White   middlings   20   pounds 

Meat   scrap 15   pounds 

Charcoal   1  pound 

The  dry  mash  is  kept  before  the  hens  all  the  time;  on 
three  mornings  a  week  a  wet  mash  of  the  same  ingredients 
is  fed.  the  birds  being  given  only  what  they  will  clean  up 
quickly.  On  the  other  four  mornings  grain  is  fed  in  litter. 
At  noon  green  feed  is  given.  In  the  evening  grain  in  litter. 


Ration    No.    38b — Cornell   Heavy   Laying    Ration 


Scratch   Mixture: 

Winter  Weight 

Wheat    60   pounds 

Cracked    corn    60   pounds 

Oats 30  pounds 

Buckwheat    30   pounds 

Summer: 

Wheat    60  pounds 

Cracked    corn    60  pounds 

Oats 30  pounds 

Mash: 

Corn    meal 60   pounds 

Wheat  middlings  60   pounds 

Wheat  bran   30   pounds 

Alfalfa   meal    10   pounds 

Oil    meal    10   pounds 

Meat    scrap    50   pounds 

Salt    1  pound 


Measure 
32  quarts 
36  quarts 
30  quarts 
20  quarts 


32  quarts 
36  quarts 
30  quarts 


57  quarts 

71  quarts 

57  quarts 

20  quarts 

8  quarts 

43  quarts 

%  quart 


The  hens  should  eat  about  half  as  much  mash,  by 
weight,  as  grain.  Regulate  the  proportion  by  giving  a  light 
feed  of  grain  in  the  morning,  and  at  the  afternoon  feeding 
all  they  will  consume  before  dark.  The  grain  is  supple- 
mented with  green  feed,  grit,  and  shell,  and  the  birds  always 
supplied  with  fresh  water. 

SELECTED    RATIONS    REPORTED    BY    POULTRYMEN    IN 
THE  NINETIES,  TAKEN   FROM   POULTRY- 
CRAFT   (1899) 

Ration  No.  31) h— E.  C.  Wyckoff's  Ration «  Morning — Mash 
compounded  as  follows:  1  bu.  corn,  2  bu.  oats,  ground  fine; 
to  each  200  pounds  of  this  mixture  add  100  Ibs.  of  bran  and 
5  or  6  Ibs.  of  beef  scraps;  moisten  with  milk;  feed  in  troughs, 
returning  after  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  to  take  up  any  feed 
that  may  be  left,  and  give  more  when  needed.  At  noon — 
green  feed,  mangels,  cabbage  in  winter;  clover  or  kale  in 
summer;  sometimes  a  light  feed  of  mixed  grain  in  litter. 
Night  feed — mixed  grain.  In  winter,  2  bu.  each  wheat,  oats, 
buckwheat,  and  corn;  in  summer,  the  corn  in  the  mixture 
reduced  one-half. 

Ration  No.  4Ob — F.  H.  Dawley's  Ration:  Morning — mash, 
clover  hay  or  crimson  clover  steamed  overnight;  in  the 
morning-  stirred  up  with  a  mixed  feed  of  100  Ibs.  coarse 
wheat  bran,  75  Ibs.  yellow  corn  meal,  100  Ibs.  ground  oats, 
50  to  75  Ibs.  linseed  meal,  a  little  charcoal  and  salt.  Feed 
all  they  will  eat  clean.  Noon — green  bone  and  vegetables. 
Night — whole  wheat,  and  a  little  corn. 

Ration  No.  41  b— J.  H.  Robinson's  Ration:  Morning — 
mash — by  measure,  2  parts  finely  cut  alfalfa,  2  parts  heavy 
bran  (bran  and  middlings),  1  part  corn  meal,  made  into  a 
stiff,  almost  crumbly  dough  by  scalding  with  water  or  sweet 
skim  milk.  Feed  either  hot  or  cold,  all  the  hens  will  eat 


in  ten  or  fifteen  minutes.  If  other  green  feed  is  abundant 
the  hay  may  be  omitted.  Noon — a  light  feed  of  oats  or  mil- 
let, either  dry  or  steamed,  or  of  wheat — about  one-half  pint 
to  ten  hens.  Evening — wheat,  about  one  pint  to  ten  hens, 
in  litter,  followed  just  at  dusk  with  whole  corn  to  fowls 
that  are  waiting  for  it.  Two  or  three  times  a  week,  green 
cut  bone  at  mid-afternoon,  and  on  these  days  the  evening 
feed  slightly  reduced. 

These  three  rations  are  typical  rations  of  the  period  be- 
fore educational  institutions  began  to  develop  exact  for- 
mulas for  mashes  and  the  mixtures  or  combinations  of 
grains  used  by  practical  poultrymen. 

As  has  been  stated,  the  number  of  poultry  keepers 
who  could  give  accurate  statements  of  their  method 
of  feeding  was  small,  but  there  were  always  a  few  who 
could  do  so.  Most  practical  poultrymen,  who  are  con- 
cerned only  to  get  results  from  their  feeding,  and  have 
really  no  interest  in  describing  their  method  for  others, 
have  always  been  reluctant  to  state  either  exact  propor- 
tions in  the  feeds,  or  exact  amounts  fed,  because  of  the 
extent  to  which,  in  their  practice,  they  vary  from  their 
general  standard  to  suit  conditions.  Educators  also  ap- 
pieciate  the  difficulties  of  making  definite  statements  for 
changing  and  variable  conditions,  but  nevertheless  have 
to  be  as  definite  as  possible,  giving  the  best  standard 
they  can,  and  trusting  to  the  common  sense  of  the  novice 
to  make  desirable  modifications  in  rations  as  experience 
demonstrates  the  occasions  for  doing  so. 

Some  Practical  Points  About  Methods  of  Feeding 
To  a  great  extent  the  rations  used  and  recommended 
by  government  departments  and  institutions  dealing  with 
poultry  production,  represent  the  practice  of  poultry 
keepers  in  the  localities  of  the  various  institutions  and 
departments.  Those  engaged  in  educational  work  gen- 
erally take  the  practice  of  the  best  poultry  keepers  they 
know  as  the  basis  of  their  own  methods.  They  frequent- 
ly are  able,  as  the  result  of  more  accurate  observations 
than  can  be  made  in  common  practice,  to  make  and  sug- 
gest modifications  which  increase  the  efficiency  of  ra- 
tions. Their  recommendations  lead  to  the  more  extensive 
use  of  rations  that  are  giving  good  results,  and  tend  to 
standardize  feeding  practice  among  their  constituents. 
Equally  with  regard  to  rations  used  and  recommended  by 
poultry  departments  in  the  public  service,  and  rations 
used  and  recommended  by  successful  poultry  keepers, — 
whether  those  are  of  their  own  compounding  or  are  com- 
mercial mixtures — it  may  be  assumed  that  the  rations  are 
efficient  rations,  when  properly  used. 

The  list  that  has  been  given,  while  very  comprehen- 
sive, is  by  no  means  an  exhaustive  one.  As  it  is,  how- 
ever, it  shows  plainly  that  the  exact  proportions  of  dif- 
ferent feed  elements  in  rations  are  not  the  prime  factors 
in  determining  their  feeding  value,  and  that  within  tol- 
erably wide  limits  differences  in  proportions  of  ingredi- 
ents have  no  particular  bearing  on  the  efficiency  of  the 
ration.  The  essential  thing  is  to  supply  the  fowls  with 
liberal  rations,  containing  the  general  proportions  appro- 
priate to  the  climatic  and  other  conditions  affecting  ap- 
petite and  results,  and  to  do  this  under  conditions  that 
promote  regularity  in  eating,  a  reasonable  amount  of 
exercise,  and  normal  habits.  This  being  done,  further 
balancing  of  the  ration  given  to  a  flock  is  a  matter  of 
each  individual  taking  feed  according  to  its  taste  and 
appetite.  The  fact  is  that,  given  a  sufficient  supply  of 
giains  in  simple  variety — partly  hard,  and  partly  in  the 
form  of  meal,  with  animal  feed  in  sufficient  amount  to 
furnish  protein  that  may  be  required  over  and  above  what 
the  grains  supply,  the  real  regulator  in  the  ration  is  the 
supply  of  green  feed. 

Many  poultry  keepers  who  use  commercial  mixtures 
and  find  them  very  satisfactory  are  anxious  to  get  the 
formulas  for  them,  either  that  they  may  make  near  sub- 


FEEDING  FOR  EGG  PRODUCTION 


77 


stitutes  when  unable  to  secure  a  supply,  or  in  the  ex- 
pectation that  they  may  be  able  to  duplicate  the  mixture 
at  less  cost  by  buying  the  ingredients  separately  and 
mixing  them  themselves.  Many  manufacturers  of  feeds 
now  publish  in  their  literature,  in  their  advertisements, 
and  sometimes  on  packages  containing  their  products 
statements  of  the  kinds  of  ingredients  in  them,  and  of  the 
percentages  of  fat,  protein,  and  fiber  which  they  guar- 
antee. They  do  not  give  proportions  of  the  different  in- 
gredients, for  the  simple  reason  that  secrecy  as  to  such 
details  of  trade  formulas  and  processes  is  the  man- 
ufacturer's protection  for  the  reputation  he  may  be  able 
to  build  up  for  a  particular  line  or  brand  of  goods.  Re- 
gardless of  whether  the  article  is  equal,  or  superior,  or 
inferior,  to  some  other  of  its  class,  or  whether  the  man- 
ufacturer's claims  for  it  are  moderate  or  extravagant, 
when  goods  of  this  character  make  a  reputation  under  a 
certain  name  or  brand,  the  proprietor  acquires  an  ex- 
clusive right  to  the  use  of  that  name  or  brand,  as  well 
as  to  a  trade-mark,  and  exclusive  knowledge  of  his  for- 
ula  is  on  the  same  principle  as  the 
right  of  an  inventor,  or  the  copy- 
right of  an  author. 

The  real  merits  of  commercial  mix- 
tures and  brands  of  live  stock  and 
poultry  feeds  are  not  in  the  peculiar 
individual  properties  of  certain  arti- 
cles or  lines  of  goods,  but  in  the 
good  features  common  to  all  lines 
put  out  by  reputable  houses  seeking 
to  build  up  a  large  demand  for  their 
goods.  The  manufacturer  of  poultry 
feeds  has  superior  advantages  in  buy- 
ing the  ingredients  for  them.  Operat- 
ing on  the  scale  that  he  does  he  can 
make  all  tests  necessary  to  determine 
the  exact  values  of  ingredients  as 
used,  and  so  he  can,  whenever  there 
is  occasion  to  do  so,  make  the  varia- 
tions in  his  mixtures  necessary  to 
maintain  h  i  s  nutritive  standards. 
Without  disparagement  of  any  line 
of  products  it  may  be  said  that  the 
well-known  popular  lines  are  equally 
good,  and  looking  over  the  formulas 

as  recommended  by  many  experiment  stations  the  reader 
can  easily  judge  for  himself  that  many  brands  are  equal- 
ly well  adapted  to  supply  the  grain  ration  for  poultry 
anywhere.  The  ordinary  variations  in  other  than  com- 
mercial rations  are  made  as  a  rule  to  utilize  the  most 
available  and  the  cheapest  feeds.  Costs  of  feeds  vary 
much  more  with  locality  than  do  the  feed  requirements 
of  poultry. 

When  a  certain  feed  or  ration  is  giving  good  results, 
it  is  good  policy  to  continue  its  use  unless  one  is  cer- 
tain that  better  production  or  lower  cost  will  follow  a 
change;  but  no  poultry  keeper  ought  ever  to  allow  him- 
self to  harbor  the  idea  that  any  formula — whether  used  at 
a  laying  contest  or  recommended  by  an  uncommonly  suc- 
cessful breeder,  or  by  an  experiment  station — is  so 
superior  to  others  that  equally  good  results  cannot  be 
obtained  from  some  other  ration.  When  a  familiar  and 
favorite  feed,  whether  a  commercial  or  a  home  mix- 
ture, cannot  be  obtained,  the  only  sensible  thing  to  do 
is  to  take  whatever  commercial  feed  is  available,  or  io 
make  as  good  a  combination  as  possible  of  available  in- 
gredients. The  last  thing  that  should  be  considered 
(which,  however,  is  the  first  thing  that  a  great  many  peo- 


ple do)  is  to  feed  short  on  the  favorite  usual  ration  with 
the  idea  of  making  the  supply  last  as  long  as  possible 
when  it  is  running  low  and  the  prospect  of  replenishing 
it  at  an  early  date  is  doubtful,  or  to  feed  light  of  a  new 
ration  or  feed — on  the  theory  that  if  the  ration  is  not 
as  good  as  that  commonly  used,  the  less  fed  of.it  the 
better.  Novices  are  especially  prone  to  take  this  atti- 
tude when  the  feeding  of  a  different  ration  from  that 
which  has  been  used  starts  mild  digestive  trouble  and 
perhaps  leads  to  more  serious  results  in  a  few  cases. 
They  suppose  that  the  new  feed,  or  something  in  it,  is 
in  itself  harmful,  when  the  fact  is  simply  that  the  birds 
have  been  so  managed  that  they  are  easily  affected  by 
changes  of  diet. 

There  is  nothing  in  itself  harmful  in  any  article  com- 
monly used  for  poultry  feed.  Some  things  are  dangerous 
when  fed  to  excess,  but  poultry  do  not  usually  take  such 
things  in  excessive  amounts  unless  practically  forced  to 
do  so  in  order  to  get  an  amount  of  feed  that  will  barely 
satisfy  their  hunger.  With  the  exception  of  those  who 


COLONY   HOUSES   IN    SMALL  YARDS   ON    A   NEW    ENGLAND    DAIRY    AND 

POULTRY  AND   GARDEN  FARM 

The  land  in  use  for  poultry  at  any  time  is  stocked  to  its  intensive  capacity, 
but  the  poultry  goes  on  fresh  land  each  year.  There  is  a  road  between  the  two 
rows  of  houses  and  the  yards  extend  from  it  on  either  side. 

have  had  wide  experience  in  the  use  of  feeds,  and  with 
different  classes  and  types  of  fowls,  nearly  all  poultry 
keepers  have  more  or  less  trouble  when  they  make  any 
radical  change  in  a  ration,  but  when  the  change  is  a  nec- 
essary one,  the  only  sound  policy  is  to  make  whatever 
other  adjustments  of  the  ration  the  primary  change  makes 
necessary,  and  then  feed  well,  culling  out  as  soon  as 
possible  any  individuals  that  it  appears  will  not  thrive 
on  the  new  diet. 

One  of  the  most  important  points  in  feeding  for 
egg  production  is  to  have  already  established  good  habits 
of  feeding  in  the  pullets,  and  to  preserve  these  through- 
out the  productive  life  of  the  hens.  A  common  caution 
in  regard  to  the  use  of  mashes,  both  moist  and  dry — 
but  moist  mashes  in  particular  —  is  to  avoid  overfeeding 
the  fowls,  because  overeating  of  mash  (it  is  alleged) 
makes  fowls  sluggish  and  inactive,  so  that  after  eating 
heartily  of  mash  they  become  almost  torpid  for  hours, 
standing  listlessly  about  when  they  ought  to  be  scratch- 
ing for  grain.  While  this  is  a  common  case,  it  is  not  a 
necessary  and  inevitable  consequence  of  full  feeding  of 
any  mash;  but  rather  is  the  result  of  feeding  poorly 
made  and  somewhat  indigestible  mashes,  or  mashes  too 


78 


rich  in  concentrated  materials,  or  may  be  simply 
because  the  birds  have  been  allowed  to  get  into  bad  eat- 
ing habits.  If  birds  after  eating  liberally  of  a  moist 
mash  act  as  described,  the  keeper  should  either  find  out 
how  to  feed  moist  mash  without  causing  the  fowls  to  do 
this,  or  change  to  a  dry  mash. 

It  is  entirely  possible  to  give  hens,  as  soon  as  they 
will  eat  in  the  morning,  a  liberal  feed  of  moist  mash — 
all  they  will  eat  at  once — and  then  have  them  go  directly 
to  scratching  for  grain  in  litter,  although  there  is  more 
mash  still  in  the  troughs  uneaten.  In  fact  it  is  the 
nature  of  the  normal  healthy  bird  to  do  it — to  take  a 
variety  of  things  at  one  meal,  just  as  a  normal  human 
being  does.  In  feeding  thrifty  young  chickens  to  make 
the  best  possible  growth  it  is  found  that  after  giving  them 
all  they  will  eat  of  either  soft  or  hard  feed,  they  can  be 
given  the  other  form  and  will  eat  a  substantial  quantity 
of  it,  on  top  of  what  appeared  to  be  a  full  meal.  As  they 
complete  their  growth  they  are  less  inclined  to  do  this, 
lot  their  feed  requirements  are  less  and  their  appetites  not 
so  keen;  but  if  they  have  always  been  accustomed  to  find 
grain  by  looking  or  scratching  for  it,  and  if  the  mash 
when  taken  into  the  crop  does  not  distress  them,  they 
will  very  soon,  and  often  immediately  after  eating  what 
mash  they  want  at  one  time,  begin  to  forage  or  scratch 
for  grain.  If  the  birds  know  that  there  is  no  grain  to 
be  had  until  the  feeder  gives  a  new  supply  some  hours 
later,  it  is  not  to  be  expected  that  they  will  look  for 
grain  after  filling  up  pretty  well  on  other  feed.  If  they 
have  learned  by  experience  that  what  they  eat  while  the 
mash  is  before  them  is  all  they  will  get  until  the  next 
feeding  time,  it  is  not  to  be  expected  that  they  will  be 
prevented  from  taking  mash  to  the  limit  of  their  capacity 
by  anything  but  shortage  of  the  supply  or  positive  dis- 
tress from  having  eaten  too  much  of  it.  Fowls  are  not 
of  a  high  order  of  intelligence,  but  all  animals  instinctive- 
ly try  to  secure  their  full  share  of  supplies  of  feed  in 
sight  when  there  is  nothing  else  immediately  in  prospect. 

In  good  practice,  with  the  dry-mash  method  of  feed- 
ing, the  mash  is  usually  accessible  to  the  birds  either  all 
the  time  or  for  long  periods  daily,  and  when  the  mash  is 
not  accessible  the  scratch  feed  is.  It  can  hardly  be  re- 
peated too  often,  or  emphasized  too  strongly,  that  the 
greatest  value  in  the  dry-feeding  method,  is  in  keeping 
feed  of  some  kind  always  before  the  birds.  If  this  rule 
is  adopted  with  a  moist-mash  system,  it  will  be  found 
that  unless  the  mash  made  and  fed  is  very  bad  indeed,  or 
the  birds  have  indigestion  to  start  with,  the  common  bad 
effects  accompanying  moist-mash  feeding  will  be  con- 
spicuously absent.  A  poultry  keeper  who  wishes  to  use 
moist  mashes  regularly  and  freely,  and  to  be  sure  that 
the  mash  made  is  a  thoroughly  good  one — right  in  con- 
sistency and  bulk- — can  best  get  at  the  heart  of  the  matter 
by  feeding  the  mash  in  the  morning,  experimenting  intelli- 
gently both  with  composition  and  mixing  of  the  mash 
and  with  the  quantity  to  be  given,  until  he  can  make  a 
mash  that  the  birds  will  eat  freely,  but  not  gluttonously, 
and  still  show  some  interest  in  any  other  kind  of  food  that 
may  be  available. 

Feeding  in  the  morning  is  the  best  test  of  the  mash 
itself,  because  when  it  is  fed  at  noon  the  birds  usually 
have  in  their  crops  some  grain  or  other  feed  which  helps 
relieve  any  bad  effects  of  an  unsuitable  mash,  and  also 
tends  greatly  to  reduce  the  amount  of  an  unsuitable  and 
perhaps  unappetizing  mash  consumed.  Feeding  mash  at 
night  gives  no  opportunity  at  all  to  judge  of  its  possible 
tendency  to  make  the  biids  inactive  because  they  go  to 
roost  then  anyway.  The  old  theory  of  the  morning  mash 


was  that  the  birds  having  had  a  long  fast,  especially  in 
the  long  winter  night,  should  have  soft  feed  first  because 
it  would  be  more  quickly  digested  an'd  assimilated.  On 
the  same  line  of  reasoning  the  night  feed  was  of  hard 
grain — with  whole  corn  much  favored — with  the  idea  that 
it  took  longer  to  digest  and  that  the  birds  were  more 
comfortable — were  really  being  nourished — while  the  feed 
was  in  the  digestive  tract.  These  ideas  seemed  convinc- 
ingly reasonable  to  the  majority 'of  poultry  keepers  in 
those  days,  but  no  data  were  ever  obtained  that  would 
support  any  theory  of  the  kind. 

In  general,  the  feeding  of  a  soft  mash  to  adult  birds 
more  than  once  a  day  is  not  good  practice,  nor  is  it  wise 
to  force  heavy  consumption  of  dry  mash  by  giving  the 
hens  less  grain  than  they  will  eat  if  allowed  to  select 
for  themselves,  unless  the  idea  is  to  force  egg  produc- 
tion as  long  as  the  hens  will  stand  that  kind  of  feeding, 
and  kill  them  for  the  table  as  soon  as  they  show  symp- 
toms of  being  unfavorably  affected  by  it.  Too  much 
feeding  of  soft  mash,  with  a  corresponding  reduction  in 
the  amount  of  hard  grain  given,  not  only  weakens  the 
digestive  organs,  but  causes  more  or  less  relaxation  of 
the  whole  muscular  system.  When  this  is  accompanied, 
as  it  often  is,  by  increased  egg  production  as  the  result 
of  forcing  feeds,  many  hens  are  unable  to  retain  their 
eggs  in  the  oviduct  until  complete,  and  lay  soft-shelled 
eggs  although  liberally  supplied  with  shell-forming  ma- 
terial. The  best  way  to  correct  such  conditions-  is  to 
give  a  diet  of  all  hard  grain  and  vegetable  feeds,  letting 
the  bird  balance  its  own  ration  of  these,  and  feeding  no 
meat  or  other  especially  stimulating  feed  until  it  is  again 
in  normal  condition. 

It  will  be  observed  that  nearly  all  the  directions  for 
feeding  given  say  that  the  grain  is  fed  in  litter.  Obvious- 
ly this  is  done  in  the  houses  in  most  cases,  both  winter 
and  summer.  Wherever  layers  can  be  kept  on  range  in 
summer,  it  is  much  better  to  broadcast  the  grain  on  the 
range,  thus  giving  the  hens  every  inducement  to  forage 
widely.  It  is  especially  desirable  to  do  this  with  the 
heavier  breeds,  and  hens  of  any  breed  that  have  a  ten- 
dency to  put  on  fat.  Some  judgment  must  of  course  be 
exercised  in  the  matter  of  feeding  grain  outdoors  in  wet 
weather.  It  should  not  be  fed  outside  in  protracted  heavy 
rains  when  the  birds  will  not  stay  out  long  enough  to 
get  a  feed.  A  little  experience  will  enable  the  poultry 
keeper  to  judge  how  much  rain  it  takes  to  discourage  his 
hens  from  foraging  for  their  feed.  Also  in  putting  out 
grain  in  wet  weather  he  should  be  careful  not  to  put  out 
more  cracked  corn  than  will  be  eaten  before  the  next 
feeding  time,  for  cracked  corn  lying  out  in  the  wet  or  in 
alternate  wet  and  heat  deteriorates  very  quickly.  With 
whole  grains  there  is  no  loss,  for  wetting  soaks  and 
sprouts  them,  so  that  there"  will  be  no  waste  and  no 
harm  done  if  oats,  barley,  wheat,  and  rye  are  thrown 
out  more  freely  than  usual  in  damp  weather.  The  birds 
can  get  what  they  want  more  quickly,  and  will  soon 
clean  up  any  excess  after  the  wet  weather  is  over. 

For  some  years  the  most  common  practice  has  been 
to  feed  the  hard  grain  in  a  mixture,  giving  the  different 
kinds  in  the  same  proportion  at  every  feed.  This  prac- 
tice has  come  in  largely  as  the  result  of  the  necessity  for 
using  commercial  mixtures  to  get  the  desired  variety  in 
grains,  and  because  so  large  a  proportion  of  poultry 
keepers,  buying  feed  in  small  quantities,  preferred  to  buy 
mixtures  rather  than  various  and  sometimes  small 
amounts  of  different  kinds  of  grains.  While  grains  were 
easily  obtained  in  fair  variety  the  common  practice  of 
good  poultry  keepers  was  to  feed  the  grains  separately. 


FEEDING  FOR  EGG  PRODUCTION 


79 


and  many  poultry  keepers  still  follow  it.  It  is  the  method 
that  is  best  adapted  to  feeding  when  the  stock  consists 
of  more  than  one  breed,  the  different  breeds  requiring 
somewhat  different  rations,  and  when  the  stock  contains 
lots  of  birds  that  are  being  fed  for  different  purposes,  or 
when  the  stock  is  divided  into  flocks  of  the  same  variety 
requiring  somewhat  different  treatment.  It  tends  to  pre- 
vent hens  from  picking  a  favorite  grain  first,  as  they  are 
inclined  to  do  when  mixed  grains  are  fed.  While  a  hen 
that  perhaps  is  averse  to  eating  oats,  and  especially  fond 
of  corn,  might  eat  rather  sparingly  of  a  feed  of  oats  at 
rcon,  and  eat  greedily  of  the  feed  of  cracked  corn  in  the 
evening,  she  cannot  take  the  coin  and  leave  the  oats  to 
the  extent  that  she  would  if  they  were  always  given  at 
the  same  time. 

When  the  grains  are  fed  separately  it  is  a  simple 
matter  to  give  hens  that  need  a  larger  proportion  of  oats 
a  heavy  feed  of  oats,  and  when  the  corn  is  fed  give  them 
a  light  feed  of  corn.  Or,  whatever  grain  is  fed,  those 
hens  which  should  have  more  than  average  proportions 
of  it  can  be  given  them  at  the  time  it  is  fed,  and  fed 
lighter  of  some  other  meal — either  mash  or  hard  grain, 
or  both,  as  circumstances  require.  While  it  is  usual  to 
feed  the  mixed  grains  rather  lightly  at  morning  or  noon, 
and  heavier  at  the  evening  feeds,  in  deep  litter  feeding 
there  ought  always  to  be  some  grain  in  the  litter,  and  it 
does  not  make  much  difference  what  time  of  day  it  is 
put  there. 

Varying  the  amount  of  grain  as  just  described,  and 
providing  conditions  especially  suited  to  them  are  the 
practical  ways  of  getting  good  egg  yields,  from  hens  of 
the  breeds  and  types  that  do  not  lay  well  under  ordinary 
conditions  and  handling.  Large  fowls,  and  all  fowls  with 
a  tendency  to  fatten  easily  should  have  either  good  range 
or  deep  litter  that  does  not  pack  too  quickly,  and  is  light 
and  easily  worked.  The  specification  for  deep  litter  :n 
the  laying  houses  is  often  "more  honored  in  the  breach 
than  in  the  observance",  not  because  the  poultry  keeper 
does  not  intend  to  keep  the  litter  in  the  condition  that  it 
should  be.  but  because  many  things  may  interfere  with 
renewing  it  at  the  appropriate  time,  and  not  infrequently 


supplies  of  litter  are  hard  to  obtain.  With  small  active 
fowls  it  does  not  make  so  much  difference.  In  fact,  if 
they  go  into  winter  quarters  in  good  condition  and  start 
laying  seasonably  they  may  lay  as  well  for  three  or  four 
months  fed  in  troughs  or  on  bare  floors"  and  taking  com- 
paratively little  exercise,  as  when  fed  in  litter,  but 
they  will  not  keep  in  as  good  physical  condition,  and  to- 
ward spring  will  develop  a  much  larger  proportion  of 
cases  of  liver  trouble  than  flocks  that  have  had  a  reason- 
able amount  of  exercise  in  getting  their  daily  ration. 

With  large  hens  and  those  having  a  strong  tendency 
to  fatten,  good  egg  production  through  a  long  period 
calls  for  careful  management  to  keep  the  hen  always  in 
laying  condition.  There  is  a  common  impression  that 
pullets  often  fail  to  lay  at  maturity  because  they  are 
allowed  to  become  too  fat.  This  idea  is  responsible  for 
a  great  deal  of  short  feeding  of  pullets  at  the  very  time 
when  they  should  be  fed  most  liberally,  for  while  a  pul- 
let may  not  be  increasing  in  size  and  weight  in  the  few 
weeks  between  the  first  indications  of  laying  and  the  be- 
ginning of  egg  production  when  development  is  regu- 
lar and  normal,  she  is  growing  a  coat  of  feathers  and  the 
reproductive  organs  are  developing,  and  for  these  things 
she  can  usually  use  to  advantage  all  the  feeds  she  can 
digest  and  assimilate. 

It  is  doubtful  whether  becoming  too  fat  as  she  ap- 
proached maturity  was  ever  the  first  and  true  cause  of  a 
pullet's  failure  to  lay.  When  pullets  are  handled  under 
conditions  that  give  the  keeper  opportunities  to  observe 
them  closely,  and  to  give  attention  to  feeding  them  to 
put  them  in  ideal  condition  for  egg  production,  it  will 
often  develop  that  the  pullet  either  will  not  lay  at  all, 
or  will  lay  little  and  irregularly  and  probably  lay  ab- 
normal eggs.  This  furnishes  reasonable  grounds  for  sup- 
posing that  the  real  reason  she  puts  on  fat  is  because 
the  reproductive  system  does  not  function  properly  and, 
the  digestive  organs  being  good  and  the  pullet  eating 
well,  the  feed  that  would  go  to  eggs  if  the  reproductive 
organs  were  normal  naturally  goes  to  fa*.  This  may 
also  be  the  case  when  moving  a  pullet  about  to  begin  lay- 
ing checks  egg  production.  The  ovary,  sensitive  to  the 


ILLUSTRATION     SHOWING     QUANTITY     OP  PEED    CONSUMED    BY    A   HEN   IN   A   YEAR 

This  display   was  arranged   by  Prof.  James  Dryden  for  a  part  of  the  space  allotted  to  poultry  in  an  agricultural  "Demonstra- 
tion   Train"    traveling    in    the    State    of   Oregon. 


80 


HOW  TO  FEED  POULTRY  FOR  ANY  PURPOSE  WITH  PROFIT 


change,  becomes  dormant — the  more  readily  because  fall 
laying  is  in  a  measure  abnormal — the  pullet  becomes  fat, 
and  it  is  supposed  that  she  does  not  lay  because  she  is 
too  fat.  Removing  the  fat,  however,  is  not  at  all  sure  lo 
start  the  pullet  laying  before  the  approach  of  the  nat- 
ural spring  laying  season,  while  when  that  comes — unless 
there  is  something  wrong  with  the  ovary,  she  will  begin 
laying  even  though  very  fat. 

Where  the  seat  of  trouble  is  concealed,  and  the 
causes  are  more  or  less  obscure,  as  in  most  cases  when 
eggs  are  not  produced  according  to  expectation,  the  best 
course  is  to  try  to  adjust  the  feed  and  the  conditions  of 
feeding  to  keep  the  bird  in  good  flesh,  a  little  fat,  but 
not  overfat,  and  keep  it  active  and  lively,  and  await  de- 
velopments. While  we  may  say  that  the  accumulation  of 
fat  does  not  act  as  a  direct  preventive  of  egg  produc- 
tion, there  is  no  doubt  that  the  accumulation  of  fat  be- 
yond the  moderate  reserve  that  is  advantageous  to  the 
bird  impairs  its  vitality  and  weakens  every  function.  It  is 
continued  and  progressive  general  physical  deterioration, 
and  not  the  mechanical  interference  of  fat,  that  unfits 
overfat  hens  for  egg  production,  and  is  likely  to  limit 
their  laying  period  to  a  short  term  in  the  spring. 

When  we  come  to  consider  the  details  of  fattening 
poultry,  it  will  be  shown  that  feeding  to  fatten  quickly 
spoils  the  digestion.  When  stock  fattens  on  laying  ra- 
tions, under  the  conditions  appropriate  for  laying  stock, 
the  same  thing  takes  place,  but.  at  a  much  slower  rate. 
The  effect  of  impaired  digestion,  and  the  general  physi- 
cal deterioration  that  goes  with  it,  is  not  to  make  a  non- 
layer,  but  to  make  the  reproductive  processes  as  slow  as 
all  the  other  processes  of  the  life  of  the  bird.  It  is  cus- 
tomary to  speak  of  extra-good  layers  as  high  producers 
and  of  poor  layers  as  low  producers.  The  terms,  fast 
producers  and  slow  producers,  would  be  more  significant 
of  the  relation  of  the  hen  to  her  product.  The  high  pro- 
ducer lays  eggs  continuously  and  in  quick  succession;  the 
low  producer  lays  more  or  less  intermittently — that  is, 
she  skips  more  days  while  laying  most  regularly,  and  she 
is  apt  to  take  frequent  rests  to  recuperate  from  a  strain 
of  egg  production  which  a  more  vigorous  bird  does  not 
feel. 

Amount  of  Feed  Consumed- By  Laying  Hens 

As  the  amount  of  feed  consumed  by  any  flock  varies 
more  or  less  with  conditions  and  according  to  the  size 
and  type  of  the  fowls,  hens  cannot  be  fed  "by  the  scales." 
Knowledge  of  what  has  been  eaten  by  definite  numbers 
of  hens  of  a  given  breed  and  weight  is,  however,  of  con- 
siderable service  to  poultry  keepers.  It  enables  "them  to 
determine  whether  they  are  getting  the  results  they  should 
from  the  feeds  they  use,  and  when  they  cannot  keep  ac- 
count of  feed  as  used  it  helps  them  to  make  very  accu- 
rate estimates.  A  number  of  the  experiment  stations 
have  published  valuable  data  of  this  kind.  The  figures 
that  follow  have  been  abstracted  from  their  reports: 

At  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station  in  1911,  in  four 
flocks,  each  of  about  50  White  Leghorns,  the  average 
weight  of  the  hens  being  3.46  pounds,  the  average  con- 
sumption of  grain  and  mash  was  69.3  pounds,  of  which 
47.2  pounds  was  grain,  and  22.1  pounds  mash.  Each  pul- 
let also  consumed  about  5  pounds  of  green  feed,  about 
5.  pounds  of  clover  chaff,  %  pound  of  grit,  1^4  pounds  of 
shell,  and  l/2  pound  of  bone. 

In  the  following  year  records  for  four  flocks  of  White 
Ueghorrts,  with  75  to  80  in  each,  with  an  average  weight 
little  over  3  pounds,  the  average  consumption  of  grain 
and  mash  was  65  pounds;  while  in  a  flock  of  Barred  Ply- 


mouth Rocks,  numbering  about  150  and  averaging  to 
weigh  5.3  pounds,  the  average  consumption  of  grain  and 
mash  was  80.64  pounds. 

In  1913,  records  were  kept  for  two  flocks  of  about 
100  each,  the  number  varying  slightly  as  a  result  of  loss- 
es. They  were  kept,  one  in  confinment,  the  other  on  a 
grass  lange  containing  about  two  acres.  These  were 
somewhat  larger  Leghorns  than  in  the  former  experi- 
menjs,  weighing  about  3^4  pounds  each.  The  average 
consumption  of  grain  and  mash  by  the  hens  in  confinement 
was  59.98  pounds,  by  the  hens  on  range  61,24  pounds.  The 
report  of  this  experiment  does  not  mention  the  feeding  of 
green  feed  of  any  kind  to  the  flock  in  confinement.  The 
lack  of  green  feed  would  account  for  the  lessened  con- 
sumption of  grain.  It  would  appear  by  comparison  with 
the  first  case  cited  above,  that  the  flock  of  103  hens  rang- 
ing through  the  summer  on  a  two-acre  pasture  secured 
from  it  the  equivalent  of  about  8  pounds  of  grain  per 
bird,  besides  green  feed. 

Experiments  at  this  station  in  subsequent  years  show 
very  nearly  the  same  consumption,  3-pound  hens  taking 
about  60  pounds  of  grain  and  mash  a  year,  from  2  to  3 
pounds  of  shell,  and  exceedingly  variable  amounts  of 
grit,  sometimes  as  low  as  2  ounces,  sometimes  nearly  a 
pound. 

At  Purdue  Experiment  Station  the  average  consump- 
tion of  White  Plymouth  Rock  hens  fed  Ration  No.  lOb — I 
was  85.75  pounds  of  grain  and  mash,  8.53  pounds  of  meat 
scraps,  .66  pound  of  grit,  2.09  pounds  of  shell,  and  .6 
pound  of  bone — a  total  of  97.63  pounds.  A  similar  pen 
fed  Ration  No.  lOb — II  consumed  81.25  pounds  of  grain 
and  mash,  1.28  pounds  of  grit,  2.33  pounds  of  shell,  1.22 
pounds  of  bone,  and  115.74  pounds  of  milk  per  hen. 

In    a    similar    experiment    with    White    Leghorns    the 
consumption  of  grains  ranged  from  56  to  66  pounds  per 
year,  with  meat  consumed  4  to  5  pounds,  and  milk  fro 
80  to  90  pounds  a  year.     These  reports  do  not  show  t 
weight  of  the  birds. 

The  reports  of  the  Storrs  Laying  Contest  give  the 
consumption  of  feed  by  all  pens  in  these  contests.  From 
the  report  of  the  third  contest,  which  has  this  data  in  the 
most  convenient  form,  it  appears  that  Plymouth  Rocks, 
Wyandottes,  and  Rhode  Island  Reds,  weighing  5l/2  to  6 
pounds,  consumed  an  average  of  a  fraction  over  88 
pounds  of  grain  and  mash  a  year,  with  a  few  pens  con- 
suming over  100  pounds;  and  that  Leghorns  averaging 
about  3y2  pounds  consumed  not  quite  77  pounds  of  grain 
and  mash  a  year. 

In  some  early  experiments  with  White  Leghorns 
with  rations  of  different  kinds,  at  Cornell,  the  consump- 
tion of  mash  and  grain  ranged  from  77.2  to  88.5  pounds 
per  hen.  The  hens  in  these  experiments  were  above  the 
average  size  of  Leghorns,  many  of  them  weighing  over  4 
pounds,  which  accounts  for  the  larger  consumption  of 
feed  than  in  the  other  cases  of  Leghorns  mentioned. 

The  New  Jersey  Experiment  Station,  basing  esti- 
ira*es  on  its  feeding  tests,  concludes  that  highest  egg 
production  can  be  secured  by  limiting  the  amount  of 
grain  fed  to  12  pounds  per  day  per  100  hens  from  Novem- 
ber to  April  inclusive,  10  pounds  in  May  and  June,  8 
pounds  in  July,  6  pounds  in  August,  5  pounds  in  Septem- 
ber and  October;  and  compelling  the  hens  to  make  the 
rest  of  their  grain  ration  of  dry  mash.  Those  who  under- 
take to  apply  this  formula  should  be  guided  to  some  ex- 
tent by  the  disposition  of  the  hens  toward  eating  as  large 
a  proportion  of  the  mash  as  is  indicated  for  the  closing 
months  of  the  laying  year. 


B 


FEEDING  FOR  EGG  PRODUCTION 


81 


Difficulties  of  Feeding  for  Eggs  in  Short  Winter  Days 

In  the  summer,  when  a  pullet  is  doing  her  growing, 
the  first  and  last  feeds  each  day  may  be  twelve  to  four- 
teen hours  apart,  and  even  when  the  days  are  not  at  the 
longest  she  can  be  feeding  at  some  time  in  more 
than  h#lf  of  the  twenty-four  hours.  But  in  the  short 
winter  days  it  becomes  difficult  sometimes  to  get  m 
three  meals  a  day,  giving  the  hen  feed  enough  for  main- 
tenance and  egg  production,  and  at  the  same  time  giving 
her  a  fair  amount  of  exercise  and  keeping  her  in  good 
appetite  for  every  feed.  There  are  often  not  more  than 
eight  hours  that  the  hen  can  see  to  eat.  If  the  weather 
is  generally  fair  and  bright,  so  that  the  birds  get  all  the 
light  there  is,  it  is  not  so  bad;  but  when  there  is  much 
stormy  and  dull  weather  it  is  pretty  hard  for  the  poultry 
keeper  to  keep  pullets  laying,  and  harder  to  start  those 
that  have  not  begun  to  lay,  or  that  began  and  then  stopped. 

Any  method  that  will  either  lengthen  the  day,  so  that 
the  hens  can  eat  and  digest  a  larger  amount  of  feed;  or 
that  will  conserve  the  heat  of  the  body  or  the  energies  of 
the  hen  that  what  feed  she  takes  will  go  farther — or  that 
will  supply  an  extraordinary  amount  of  nourishment,  will 
help  to  increase  egg  production  at  this*  season.  Lighting 
poultry  houses  was  tried  long  ago,  though  not  on  the 
same  scal-e,  nor  with  the  provision  for  as  thorough  light- 
ing as  in  recent  years.  Heating  poultry  houses — keeping 
the  hens  warm,  both  by  the  use  of  stoves  and  by  pro- 
viding roosting  closets  in  which  the  heat  of  their  own 
bodies  keeps  the  temperature  comfortable,  has  often  been 
tried  and  sometimes  with  remarkably  good  results  for 
the  time  being.  Keeping  the  hens  confined  close  enough 
to  keep  them  nice  and  warm  however,  has  a  tendency  to 
make  them  soft  and  especially  susceptible  to  colds  and 
roup,  and  if  they  lay  well  enough  to  justify  the  cost  and 
trouble  of  keeping  them  warm  and  adjusting  ventilation 
day  by  day  with  the  greatest  of  care,  they  are  likely  to 
lose  a  good  deal  of  vitality,  and  to  be  such  indifferent 
layers  in  the  latter  part  of  the  season  that  nothing  was 
gained  by  forcing  them  at  first 

Birds  that  are  to  be  bred  from  the  following  season 
ought  not  to  be  forced  for  egg*  production  early  in  the 
winter.  If  they  lay  well  without  any  unusual  measures 
the  best  policy  is  for  the  poultry  keeper  to  feed  them 
well,  and  when  the  breeding  season  approaches  go  over 
them  carefully  and  take  for  the  breeding  pens  only  those 
birds  that  seem  vigorous  and  thrifty,  and  are  in  good  con- 
dition after  having  laid  well  in  the  early  winter.  Birds 
that  are  not  to  be  used  for  breeding  may  be  forced  as 
much  as  desired  and  as  they  will  stand,  and  it  may  pay 
the  poultry  keeper  to  do  so  if  when  he  does  it  he  will 
recognize  that  in  all  ordinary  stocks,  hens  that  are  forced 
in  eaily  and  midwinter  are  not  apt  to  be  profitable  layers 
toward  the  end  of  the  laying  season. 

Where  a  poultry  keeper  has  a  large  stock  and  wants 
to  have  his  supply  of  market  eggs  as  constant  as  possi- 
ble throughout  the  year,  it  is  a  good  plan  'to  take  the 
pullets  that  he  regards  as  second  grade  for  layers,  and 
not  desirable  for  breeders  and,  taking  any  means  that  will 
give  the  results,  force  them  for  laying  throughout  the 
winter,  and  as  soon  as  they  begin  to  slack  up  or  to  go 
off  their  feed,  sell  them  for  poultry.  A  further  advantage 
of  this  plan  is  that  it  provides  for  using  both  the  stock 
and  the  equipment  to  the  best  possible  advantage.  Every 
poultry  house  and  plant  can  carry  more  adult  fowls 
through  the  winter  than  it  can  properly  accommodate  m 
warm  weather.  A  breeder-fancier  goes  into  the  winter 
with  his  houses  crowded,  and  by  spring  his  sales  of  stock 
will  have  taken  out  the  excess  over  the  proper  capacity 


of  the  houses  in  warm  weather.  Most  commercial  egg 
farmers  try  to  stock  to  full  capacity  at  the  beginning  of 
winter,  and  dispose  of  the  poorer  looking  hens  in  each 
house  as  warm  weather  approaches,  all  having  been 
handled  the  same  through  the  winter.  To  separate  those 
that  are  to  be  sold  at  the  beginning  of  warm  weather, 
and  feed  them  to  get  the  most  eggs  in  winter,  is  to  apply 
the  same  principle  in  feeding  pullets  for  a  short  period 
of  laying  that  we  apply  in  finishing  market  poultry. 

What  can  be  done  to  secure  good  egg  production  in 
short  winter  days,  by  special  feeding  methods,  depends 
upon  how  closely  the  hens  can  be  looked  after,  and  upon 
the  skill  of  the  poultry  keeper.  A  person  who  can  carry 
out  fully  and  regularly  a  program  of  feeding  that  gives 
a  fairly  good  meal  early  in  the  morning,  never  lets  them 
get  really  hungry  at  any  time  through  the  day,  sees  that 
they  get  a  fair  amount  of  succulent  feed  at  least  several 
times  a  week,  and  sends  them  to  roost  every  night  with 
all  crops  full  AND  WHO  ALWAYS  DOES  THIS,  will 
get  eggs  in  the  short  days  from  hens  that  are  in  the  right 
condition  for  laying.  But  to  do  it  he  will  feed  in  a  man- 
ner that  after  a  few  months  begins  to  break  the  hens 
down. 

The  writer  has  known  poultry  keepers  who  always 
got  good  egg  yields  through  the  winter — were  never 
known  to  fail.  They  all  went  on  the  principle  that  the 
way  to  get  eggs  was  to  feed  the  hens  all  they  could 
eat  of  good,  substantial  rations.  Most  of  them  had  a 
good  deal  of  trouble  trying  to  raise  cjiickens  from  their 
laying  stock,  and  depended  on  eggs  from  other  flocks  to 
produce  most  of  their  pullets  each  year;  but  give  them 
pullets  at  or  near  matuiity  at  the  beginning  of  winter, 
and  they  would  get  eggs  right  along,  and  they  would 
do  it  simply  by  regular  care  and  heavy  feeding.  The 
poultry  keeper  who  was  most  successful  through  the  long- 
est period  (in  nearly  thirty  years  he  was  not  known  to 
miss)  fed  a  warm  mash  in  the  morning.  If  the  mash 
would  not  freeze  he  put  enough  in  the  troughs  to  give 
the  hens  all  they  would  eat  until  noon.  Then  about  the 
middle  of  the  afternoon  he  put  their  grain  ration  in  the 
same  troughs,  giving  all  he  thought  they  would  eat  be- 
fore dark,  and  if  the  grain  was  cleaned  up  earlier,  more 
was  given.  In  the  mornings  when  mash  would  freeze  in 
the  troughs  he  fed  what  would  be  cleaned  up  before  it 
could  freeze,  and  then  fed  again  toward  noon.  He  gave 
steamed  clover  in  the  mash,  or  fed  cabbage  or  mangels 
shortly  after  noon. 

His  neighbors  who  were  less  successful  used  to  say 
that  he  spent  more  time  beside  the  fire  at  the  grocery 
store  a  mile  away  than  any  other  farmer  in  the  vicinity, 
yet  his  hens  laid  when  others  did  not.  The  writer  re- 
peated this  to  him  once,  and  asked  him  how  he  accounted 
for  it.  He — apparently — did  not  at  first  relish  the  refer- 
ence to  his  loafing  habit,  but  after  a  moment  laughed 
good-naturedly  and  replied:  "Well,  maybe  I  do  put  in 
more  time  at  the  store  than  some  of  the  others;  but  I  can 
say  one  thing  for  myself  that  can't  be  said  for  any  of 
them.  No  one  ever  saw  me  at  the  store  when  there  was 
work  that  ought  to  be  done  for  the  hens  at  home.  My 
hens  never  missed  a  meal  because  I  had  something  else 
on  my  mind.  And  I  never  tried  to  find  out  how  little  a 
hen  could  live  on.  You  can't  get  something  from  noth- 
ing. If  you  want  a  hen  to  lay,  you  got  to  feed  her:  same 
as  with  getting  milk  from  a  cow." 

This  man  was  not  a  good  all-round  poultryman, — he 
had  his  limitations — but  he  could  get  eggs  in  the  short 
days  of  winter,  and  he  did  it  by  feeding  well  and  never 
allowing  anything  to  interfere  with  feeding  at  the  reg- 


82 


HOW  TO  FEED  POULTRY  FOR  ANY  PURPOSE  WITH  PROFIT 


ular  times.  His  experience  and  his  method  fit  the  topic 
under  discussion,  but  should  not  be  applied  to  all  phases 
of  poultry  keeping. 

The  Water  Supply  in  Winter 

To  keep  hens  properly  supplied  with  drinking  water 
in  hard  freezing  weather,  is  one  of  the  poultry  keeper's 
most  troublesome  problems.  If  birds  with  long  wattles 
get  them  wet  while  drinking  when  the  temperature  is  well 
below  the  freezing  point,  they  are  in  that  condition  much 
more  suspectible  to  frostbite  than  when  dry.  In  most 
of  the  popular  breeds  the  hens'  wattles  are  not  long 
enough  to  make  much  trouble  on  this  score,  but  those  of 
the  males  are.  So  where  hens  are  kept  for  egg  produc- 
tion only,  there  need  be  no  trouble,  for  it  is  not  neces- 


not, 

7; 


FEED   ROOM,   OFFICE,   AND   DORMITORY    BUILDING   AT   THE    GOVERNMENT 
POULTRY    FARM,    BET/TSVILLE,    MARYLAND 

In   the   rear    is    a   long   laying   house   used    for    experimental    pens. 
U.  S.  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry. 

sary  to  keep  males  with  them.  Where  the  stock  is  to  be 
used  also  for  breeding,  it  is  desirable  to  have  the  males 
with  the  females,  living  a  normal  life  and  keeping  in 


dition  when  he  is  needed  for  breeding.  The  males  can 
stand- a  short  supply  of  water  at  this  time  better  than  the 
laying  hens  can,  and — though  it  is  not  recommended  to 
make  a  practice  of  keeping  the  males  short  of  water  at 
any  time — in  emergencies  it  may  be  the  least  of  several 
evils  to  coop  them  where  they  cannot  get  to  tli£  water 
pail. 

In  many  cases  snow  is  preferred  to  water  by  hens 
that  have  access  to  it.  Many  poultry  keepers  do  not 
water  the  hens  at  all  when  they  can  get  snow,  and  there 
are  many  cases  where  the  hens  apparently  lay  as  well 
with  only  snow  to  quench  their  thirst  as  when  supplied 
with  water.  There  are,  also,  many  instances  in  which 
snow  either  does  not  appear  fully  to  substitute  for  water, 
or  is  supposed  to  have  some  injurious  effect  on  the  hens. 
Eating  snow  is  often  alleged  to  stop 
laying.  Whether  it  does  so  or  not 
the  writer  is  not  prepared  to  s 
He  has  never  personally  known 
instance  where,  with  other  conditions 
as  they  should  be,  vigorous,  hearty 
fowls  were  in  any  way  unfavorably 
affected  by  eating  all  the  snow  they 
wanted.  It  is  probably  natural  for 
all  land  birds  in  regions  where  the 
streams  and  ponds  are  frozen  ov 
for  long  periods  to  eat  snow 
quench  their  thirst.  When  snow 

••r  ^A      available    it    is    often    easier    to    keep 

|djbg|S  the  fowls  supplied  with  it  than  with 
water,  and  in  freezing  weather  it  is 
much  safer  for  birds  with  easily 
frosted  wattles.  The  dry  snow  will 
not  adhere  to  them,  and  when  the 
snow  is  wet  the  temperature  is  above 
freezing. 

Modifying    Rations    As    the    Weather 
Moderates 

Nearly  all  stock  of  poultry,  that  are 
Photo    from 

fed   heavy   rations    in   winter    tend   t» 

deveiop   some   cases   of  liver    trouble 

toward  spring.  This  tendency  will  be  much  reduced  if 
the  poultry  keeper  is  careful  to  lighten  the  ration  when- 
ever the  weather  is  unseasonably  warm.  No  radical 


: 


good    condition,    though    the    eggs    may    not    be   used    for       changes  need  be  made,  but  a  little  less  corn  than  is  used 


hatching  for  some  time.  The  tendency  among  poultry 
keepers  who  have  males  likely  to  get  wattles  frosted  is 
to  withhold  water  from  the  flock  until  the  atmosphere 
warms  up  a  little,  and  to  empty  out  the  drinking  vessels 
early  in  the  evening — the  idea  being  that  the  birds  can 
get  all  the  water  they  really  need  in  the  few  hours  they 
have  access  to  it,  and  that  it  is  no  great  hardship  to  them 
to  be  without  it  for  sixteen  to  eighteen  hours  occasion- 
ally. No  doubt  it  is  possible  to  find  instances  where  hens 
have  laid  well  when  watered  that  way,  and  were  able  to 
get  no  snow  or  ice,  but  such  cases  are  exceptional. 

Hens  normally  require  a  great  deal  of  water  when 
fed  much  dry  grain.  They  usually  want  a  drink  before 
they  eat  in  the  morning,  and  are  likely  to  take  a  drink 


for  normal  winter  weather,  more  oats — either  dry,  soaked 
or  sprouted,  and  more  generous  feeding  of  green  feed 
will  go  far  to  check  troubles  of  this  kind.  It  is  particu- 
larly necessary  to  look  out  for  the  hens  that,  while  hearty 
feeders,  are  rather  indifferent  layers  and  more  inclined 
to  put  their  feed  into  fat  than  into  eggs.  A  hen  that  is 
in  good  condition  and  laying  well  seems  to  benefit  by 
the  warm  spells  in  winter.  Any  excess  of  feed  over 
maintenance  requirements  increases  her  rate  of  egg  pro- 
duction— as  long  as  her  digestion  and  other  functions  are 
strong  and  sound. 

A  poultry  keeper  who  trap-nests  hens  can  watch 
their  condition  very  closely.  If  one  does  not  use  trap 
nests,  he  should  make  a  practice  of  handling  his  hens  on 


the  last  thing  before  going  to  roost — if  they  can  get  it.  the  roost  at  night  to  see  what  condition  they  are  in.  If 
They  want  water  with  their  feed,  and  to  limit  them  in  this  is  not  done  a  novice  often  fails  to  increase  rations 
any  way  on  water  will  result  in  a  smaller  consumption  of  all  the  hens  will  stand  as  they  come  into  heavier  laying 
feed.  To  insure  that  hens  will  eat  as  much  as  possible  in  in  the  latter  part  of  the  winter,  and  the  result  is  that 
the  short  days,  they  should  have  water  at  will,  and  if  the  the  hens  producing  eggs  rapidly  first  use  up  what  sur- 
males  need  special  attention  to  prevent  frosting  of  the  plus  fat  they  may  have,  and  then  turn  some  nutriment 
wattles,  it  is  much  better  to  give  it  than  to  have  the  hens  that  should  go  to  the  maintenance  of  the  body  to  the  pro- 
stinted  for  drink,  or  to  have  the  trouble  of  treating  the  duction  of  eggs.  It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  the 
male's  frosted  wattles,  and  perhaps  have  him  out  of  con-  amount  of  eggs  produced  is  determined  by  the  supply  of 


FEEDING  FOR  EGG  PRODUCTION 


83 


material  available  for  eggs  after  all  requirements  of  main- 
tenance have  been  met. 

While  the  general  condition  of  the  hen  has  much  to 
do  with  the  rate  and  the  -  regularity  or  irregulari'.y  of 
production,  no  function  operates  automatically  or  other- 
wise, on  the  simple  basis  of  taking  the  excess  of  nourish- 
ment for  its  purposes — unless  the  deposit  of  fat  is  re- 
garded as  so  operating,  and  that  is  hardly  reasonable,  be- 
cause the  accumulation  of  fat  beyond  a  limited  amount  is 
detrimental  to  an  organism.  Yet  considering  the  deposit 
of  fat  as  a  function  we  see  this:  While  the  chicken  i? 
growing  it  does  not  readily  take  on  fat.  As  it  approaches 
maturity,  particularly  if  this  happens  to  be  at  the  be- 
ginning of  cold  weather,  it  has  a  pronounced  tendency  to 
fatten  if  feed  and  conditions  are  at  all  favorable.  Though 
the  tendency  to  produce  eggs  at  maturity  may  be  stronger 
in  a  pullet  than  the  tendency  to  fatten,  if  anything  dis- 
turbs the  development  of  the  reproductive  system  at  this 
time  the  tendency  to  fatten  is  quite  likely  to  assert  itseif. 

Similarly,  as  the  natural  laying  and  breeding  season 
approaches,  the  tendency  is  for  the  hen  to  produce  eggs 
more  rapidly  than  at.  any  other  time,  and  this  is  not  at- 
tributable entirely  to  more  of  the  feed  elements  becoming 
available  for  eggs,  for  though  the  period  of  flush  produc- 
tion usually  begins  aff.er  the  shortest  days  of  winter  when 
the  difficulties  of  feeding  in  short  days  are  over,  it  comes 
before  the  weather  is  warm  enough  to  reduce  the  require- 
ments of  the  hen  to  an  extent  at  all  equal  to  the  nutritive 
elements  which  she  at  this  time  converts  into  eggs.  Every 
hen  t!:at  is  capable  of  laying  lays  at  the  breeding  season, 
and  hens  that  have  laid  earlier  will  lay  more  freely  than 
before.  Apparently  the  reproductive  organs  of  each  hen 
work  to  their  capacity,  taking  all  they  can  get  and  use  of 
the  nutritive  elements  consumed,  even  at  the  expense  of 
requirements  for  maintenance. 

If  this  were  not  the  case  we  should  never  have  well- 
fed  hens  becoming  thin  and  poor  while  laying;  but  they 
would  be  full  and  firm  in  flesh,  though  not  fat,  as  long  as 
they  were  receiving  an  adequate  maintenance  ration.  In 
handling  hens  that  have  been  laying  for  some  time  it  will 
usually  be  found  that  some  are  going  off  in  condition. 
This  is  most  readily  noticed  by  the  majority  of  poultry 
keepers  when  hens  go  broody  after  two  or  three  months 
of  laying.  Hens  of  breeds  that  have  the  incubating  habit, 
which  lay  as  long  as  that  before  going  broody,  are  gen- 
erally in  rather  poor  condition  when  they  become  broody. 
Hens  of  persistently  broody  stocks,  that  go  broody  quite 
regularly  after  three  or  four  weeks  of  laying,  are  usually 
in  fair  condition  when  they  go  broody.  Many -stocks  of 
the  breeds  that  commonly  have  the  incubating  habit  pro- 
duce few  broody  hens,  and  those  only  after  long  periods 
of  laying,  and  the  hens  are  nearly  always  in  rather  poor 
flesh  when  they  go  broody. 

Instead  of  waiting  to  find  out — as  if  by  accident — 
when  hens  go  broody  or  when  they  have  stopped  laying, 
that  they  have  become  thin  and  poor,  the  poultry  keeper 
should,  from  the  time  his  hens  begin  to  lay,  at  frequent 
intervals,  handle  enough  of  them  on  the  roosts  at  night 
to  see  what  their  condition  is  and  whether  he  needs  to 
handle  them  all.  He  then  can  take  measures  to  prevent 
hens  laying  themselves  into  poor  condition  at  the  rate 
that  is  going  on  with  the  feed  the  hens  are  getting- 
Whether  he  can  keep  the  hen  laying  well  through  the 
spring  and  summer  and  up  to  the  molting  period  depends 
on  the  constitution  and  vitality  of  the  hen.  In  the  aver- 
age stock  where  selection  for  vitality  has  not  been  prac- 
ticed, probably  fifty  per  cent  of  the  hens  could  not  under 
any  system  of  feeding  or  management  be  made  profitable 


layers  for  more  than  six  or  eight  months  of  their  pullet 
year. 

But  in  the  average  large  flock  of  layers,  and  in  many 
smaller  flocks,  a  considerable  proportion  of  pullets  begin 
to  lose  flesh  and  condition  within  a  few  weeks  of  the 
time  they  commenced  laying.  The  general  cause  of  this 
is  failure  to  increase  the  amount  of  feed  as  the  hens  come 
to  heavier  laying.  All  poultry,  laying  hens  as  well  as 
stock  destined  only  for  the  table,  should  be  fed  to  keep 
it  always  in  good  flesh.  Then,  in  the  case  of  the  laying 
hen,  we  know  that  the  hen  is  doing  the  best  of  which  she 


INTERIOR  OF  PEN  IN  THE  LONG  HOUSE   IN  THE  REAR 
OF  BUILDING  ON  OPPOSITE  PAGE 

is  capable  in  egg  production.  And  though  a  hen  of  only 
moderate  vitality  may  not  be  able  to  go  the  full  distance 
with  the  continuous  layers  in  the  flock,  by  feeding  her 
well  and  keeping  her  always  in  good  flesh,  the  poultry 
keeper  insures  that  she  will  be  a  profitable  layer  consider- 
ably longer  than  if  allowed  to  run  down  in  flesh,  and  that 
when  she  quits  laying  she  will  be  in  fair  condition  to  sell 
for  table  poultry. 

The  matter  of  breeding  for  egg  production  does  .not 
come  under  the  subject  of  this  book.  Its  aim  is  to  tell 
every  poultry  keeper  how  to  feed  the  stock  he  has  to 
the  best  advantage.  As  was  said  in  another  connection, 
the  tendency  is  for  a  poultry  keeper's  stock  to  adapt  it- 
self to  his  methods  of  feeding  and  care,  by  the  somewhat 
automatic,  and  in  some  ways  undesirable  process  of  the 
failure  of  the  individuals  the  system  does  not  suit  to 
thrive  under  it.  While  it  is  highly  desirable  that  the 
poultry  keeper  should  have  stock  all  well  adapted  to  his 
methods,  that  is  never  fully  realized,  and  it  is  always 
good  policy  while  culling  out  the  unsuitable  as  that  qual- 
ity in  them  is  discovered,  to  consider  how  to  handle  them 
to  best  advantage.  On  this  principle  the  method  of 
dealing  with  a  hen  of  doubtful  value  as  a  layer  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  winter  is  different  from  that  of  dealing 
with  heavy  layers. 

If  some  hens  in  a  flock  are  laying  well  and  remain 
in  good  condition,  while  others  on  the  same  ration,  with 
the  same  opportunity  to  satisfy  their  wants,  are  in  poor 
condition,  the  logical  thing  to  do  is  to  separate  according 
to  this  characteristic;  and  to  feed  the  hens  that  are  in 
good  condition  as  before,  but  for  the  others  to  change 
the  feeding  as  seems  desirable  to  improve  their  condi- 
tion, with  the  expectation  that  it  will  either  improve  their 
production  or  extend  their  period  of  profitable  produc- 
tion. If  some  hens  seem  too  much  inclined  to  put  on  fat 
they  should  be  managed  accordingly.  If  a  poultry  keeper 


84 


HOW  TO  FEED  POULTRY  FOR  ANY  PURPOSE  WITH  PROFIT 


has  carried  so  large  a  laying  stock  through  the  winter  that 
he  has  to  reduce  in  the  spring,  it  is  good  policy  for  him 
to  sell  both  fat  and  thin  hens,  keeping  for  himself  those 
that  stay  in  best  condition  under  his  feeding  and  handling, 
and  that,  when  tested  by  modern  culling  methods,  give 
evidence  of  being  good  layers.  If  he  has  the  room,  needs 
the  eggs,  and  will  give  the  matter  attention,  he  can  sort 
out  his  hens  after  they  have  been  laying  long  enough  to 
show  how  his  system  suits  and  affects  them,  and  by  giv- 
ing the  several  types  he  has  separated  appropriate  treat- 
ment, a  large  proportion  of  them  may  lay  as  well  as  the 
hens  fed  and  managed  according  to  his  regular  method 
and  for  a  much  longer  time  than  if  all  are  fed  the  same 
way,  and  with  more  profit  than  when  those  the  method 
dees  not  suit  well  are  not  identified  until  they  are  too 
much  out  of  condition'  to  come  back  within  a  reasonable 
time  by  any  treatment  that  it  is  practical  to  apply. 

Though  at  first  thought  the  plan  of  sorting  the  lay- 
ing hens  as  just  suggested,  and  varying  the  feeding  to 
suit  the  different  types,  appears  contrary  to  the  general 
advice  to  eliminate  those  that  do  not  thrive  under  the 
methods  used  as  soon  as  possible,  it  is  really  in  line  with 
it — subject  to  the  understanding  that  "as  soon  as  possi- 
ble" is  construed  in  a  common-sense  way  to  mean  with 
due  consideration  of  questions  of  profit  and  loss.  The 
case  of  the  pullet  reared  to  maturity  and  carried  for  sev- 
eral months  after  beginning  to  lay  is  somewhat  different 
from  that  of  the  bird  which  at  maturity  appeared  an  un- 
promising layer.  The  latter  is  reasonably  certain  not  to 
lay  enough  to  warrant  keeping  her  through  the  period 
when  even  the  best  layers  are  usually  giving  their  smallest 
returns.  The  former  has  been  carried  through  that  period 
and  into  the  period  when  eggs  are  easiest  to  get.  The 
plan  suggested  is  essentially  the  same  as  sorting  the  sec- 
ond-grade layers  at  the  beginning  of  the  winter  and 
forcing  them  for  eggs,  or  as  finishing  any  kind  of  poultry 
for  market.  It  differs  only  in  that,  as  long  as  the  hen 
will  lay  eggs  at  a  profit  and  is  not  taking  room  that  could 
be  used  to  better  advantage  by  another  bird,  she  is  kept 
for  egg  production. 

Thorough  inspection  and  appropriate  assortment  and 
disposal  of  the  laying  stock  is  generally  postponed  until 
early  summer,  and  the  most  common  practice  is  to  try 
to  cull  out  at  that  time  all  hens  that  are  not  regarded  as 
worth  carrying  a  second  year.  This  culling  is  applied 
generally  to  flocks  that  have  uniform  conditions  and 
treatment.  It  is  obvious  that  this  both  fails  to  get  their 
best  production  out  of  a  considerable  proportion  of  the 
birds  culled  out  then,  and  also  that  it  misses  the  birds 
that  would  be  culled  out  in  a  careful  inspection  a  few 
months  later.  Thorough  economic  culling  of  poultry  for 
any  purpose  is  a  continuous  process,  not  one  that  can  be 
allotted  to  one  or  two  particular  occasions  in  the  year. 
There  are  various  occasions  when  a  thorough  inspection 
and  culling  are  made  more  conveniently  than  at  other 
times,  but  all  culling  should  not  be  left  to  those  occa- 
sions. Birds  that  are  plainly  going  wrong  should  be  taken 
nut  of  the  flock  as  soon  as  observed,  and  such  steps  as 
are  necessary  to  insure  that  birds  kept  will  be  profitable 
should  be  taken.  One  of  the  most  important  of  these  is 
to  ascertain,  after  the  hens  have  been  laying  a  little  while, 
what  must  be  done  to  get  as  many  eggs  as  possible  from 
ALL  the  hens  while  they  are  kept. 

Summer  Management  of  Laying  Stock 

The  summer  feeding  of  laying  stock  is  subject  to 
the  same  conditions  as  the  feeding  of  growing  chickens. 
What  was  said  in  Chapter  VI  about  feeding  chickens  in 


hot  weather  applies  equally  to  feeding  laying  hens  on 
range.  Laying  hens  in  confinement  should  be  liberally 
supplied  with  green  feed,  and  with  milk  if  it  is  obtain- 
able. Hens  that  are  to  be  kept  through  another  laying 
season  should  not  be  forced  to  keep  up  egg  production — 
which  can  be  done,  as  long  as  they  will  stand  it — by  feed- 
ing more  grain  than  they  would  voluntarily  take  if  well 
supplied  with  feeds  that  they  relish  better  in  hot  weather; 
but  where  it  is  desirable  to  get  all  the  eggs  the  hens  will 
lay,  hens  that  are  to  be  sold  when  through  laying  for  the 
season  can  be  given  as  hearty  a  ration  as  they  will  eat. 
In  feeding  heavy  rations  in  hot  weather  the  poultry 
keeper  should  recognize  that  he  is  taking  extraordinary 
risks,  especially  with  hens  that  are  a  little  fat,  and 
should  be  on  the  lookout  for  any  symptoms  of  trouble 
that  may  appear.  It  is  wise  to  make  table  poultry  of 
every  hen  that  may  attract  his  attention  as  apparently 
more  affected  by  the  heat  than  others.  Such  hens  are  all 
right  for  the  table,  but  peculiarly  susceptible  to  heat 
apoplexy,  and  of  course  if  killed  in  that  way  are  a  dead 
loss.  It  is  well  in  such  cases  to  use  the  hen  while  she  is 
suitable  for  poultry. 

Many  hens  begin  to  molt  before  midsummer.  In 
general  these  are  the  less  persistent  layers,  but  that  is. 
by  no  means  an  invariable  rule.  There  are  enough  in- 
stances of  hens  that  were  indifferent  layers  in  their  first 
year  being  heavy  layers  in  their  second  year,  and  some- 
times in  their  third  year,  to  show  that  the  hen  with  capac- 
ity for  heavy  laying  does  not  always  fully  exhibit  it  the 
first  year.  When  we  consider  how  many  things  may  tem- 
porarily affect  egg  production,  and  how  any  check  to 
egg  production  in  warm  weather  is  likely  to  start  a  molt, 
we  can  easily  see  that  the  fact  of  an  early  molt,  alone, 
ought  not  to  be  taken  as  conclusive  that  the  hen  is  not  a 
desirable  hen  to  keep  over.  Other  things  should  be  con- 
sidered— the  condition  of  the  hen  in  other  respects,  her 
previous  laying,  and  above  all,  any  possible  special  cause 
for  what  appears  as  premature  molting. 

Feeding  Molting  Hens 

The  ration  for  molting  hens  need  not  be  materially 
different  from  that  fed  them  at  other  times.  The  quantity 
should  be  as  liberal  as  the  hen  can  use  to  advantage.  The 
old  idea  was  that  hens  molting  should  be  fed  nitrogenous 
rather  than  carbonaceous  feed.  It  was  doubtless  where 
this  practice  prevailed  that  the  benefits  of  feeding  sun- 
flower seeds,  rich  in  fat,  appeared  greatest.  As  most 
hens  are  in  heavy  molt  in  the  fall  when  the  weather  is 
often  quite  cool,  the  liberal  use  of  corn  in  the  ration- 
keeps  up'  the  heat  of  the  body  while  its  natural  covering- 
is  deficient,  and  it  will  generally  be  found  that  hens  that 
are  a  little  fat  at  molting  time  grow  their  new  plumage 
more  quickly.  The  live  feather  contains  a  considerable 
amount  of  fat  (oil),  and  more  during  its  growth  than 
afterwards.  A  hen  that,  when  well  fed  during  the  molt, 
appears  to  be  taking  on  fat  rapidly  and  becoming  rather 
sluggish,  may  be  regarded  as  unlikely  to  resume  laying 
immediately  after  molting,  for  these  symptoms  indicate  a 
general  condition  not  favorable  to  the  production  of  eggs. 

Artificial  Lighting 

This  subject,  which  was  briefly  mentioned  on  page 
8^T  is  very  fully  treated  in  "Use  of  Artificial  Light  t>> 
Increase  Winter  Egg  Production"  (published  by  the  Re- 
liable Poultry  Journal  Publishing  Company),  which  gives 
in  complete  detail  all  the  latest  facts  as  observed  at  vari- 
ous experiment  stations  and  commercial  poultry  plants, 
and  allows  the  reader  to  draw  his  own  conclusions. 


Fattening  and  Finishing  Poultry  for  the  Table 

Following  Good  Feeding  for  Growth  Or  for   Egg  Production,    Finishing    Processes    May    Be    Easy    Adaptations   of 
Rations  Previously  Given — Simple  Methods  of  Fattening  Broilers,  Fryers,  Roasters,  and  Fowls,  Best 
in   Common  Practice  —  Conditions  Calling  for  Special  Fattening — Crate  Feeding  and 
Machine  Feeding  and  When  These  Methods  Can  Be  Adopted 


TO  make  good  table  poultry,  chickens  must  have 
more  fat  than  they  normally  carry  while  grow- 
ing, or  than  is  compatible  with  the  highest 
efficiency  of  all  the  physical  functions.  In  feeding  young 
chickens  for  growth  we  do  not  usually  pay.  much  atten- 
tion to  the  possible  fattening  effects  of  the  rations  given 
them,  for  under  any  conditions  favorable  to  good  growth 
in  chickens  the  possi- 
ble effects  of  an  ex- 
cess of  carbonaceous 
elements  in  the  ration 
given  them  are  neu- 
tralized by  green  feed 
and  exercise.  Hence 
with  all  poultry  that 
is  destined  only  for 
the  table,  the  practice 
is  to  feed  a  good 
growing  ration  under 
conditions  that  make 
for  sound  digestion 
and  thrifty  growth, 
until  the  bird  has 
reached  the  stage  of 
growth  at  which  spe- 
cial feeding  to  fatten 
and  finish  can  be  com- 
menced and  the  de- 
sired result  from  that 
process  be  obtained 
before  high  feed- 
ing  affects  the  diges- 
tion and  the  bird 
begins  to  go  back — 
losing  weight  and  qual- 
ity of  flesh. 

Where  poultry  is 
especially  grown  for 
the  table  the  best  prac- 
tice is  to  feed  and 
handle  more  with  the 
object  of  keeping  the 
muscles  soft,  without 
going  so  far  in  this 
that  vigor  and  capac- 
ity for  growth  are  im- 
paired. With  ordin- 
ary farm-raised  poul- 


J.  H. 


CURTISS   WITH   A   PAIR   OF   CHOICE 
ROASTING  CHICKENS 


Mr.  Curtiss  was  one  of  the  pioneers  in  growing  this  kind  of  poul- 
try, became  an  extensive  dealer  in  it,  and  in  the  thirty  odd  years  he  was 
prominent  in  the  industry,  probably  handled  more  fowls  and  chickens 


try,     and     all     stock 

grown  for  egg  produc-    of  superior  "table  quality  Than  any  man  in  America, 
tion  or  for  breeding  or 

exhibition,  the  point  of  soft-meatedness  is  not  especially 
considered.  The  aim  is  to  develop  the  strong  physique 
and  the  symmetrical  organism  that  will  be  effective  for  its 
purposes  for  several  years.  With  all  stock  of  these  de- 
scriptions the  question  of  finishing  for  the  table  is  not  a 
question  of  making  superior  table  poultry,  but  of  taking 
the  birds  as  they  are  when  no  longer  profitable  for  their 
special  purposes,  and  making  as  good  table  poultry  of 


them    as    is    possible    in    the    short    period    that    fattening 
methods   can   be   employed    to   advantage. 

For  the  great  majority  of  poultry  growers,  if  they  fed 
always  with  a  view  to  keeping  their  stock  in  good  con- 
dition, fattening  for  all  ordinary  purposes  would  be  sim- 
ply a  modification  of  their  usual  feeding  practice.  It  is 
when  young  stock  is  poorly  grown,  or  old  stock  is  al- 
lowed to  get  badly  run 
down,  that  the  average 
inexpert  poultry  keep- 
er begins  to  take  an 
interest  in  special  fat- 
tening methods  with 
the  idea  that  by  using 
them  poor  poultry  can 
be  converted  into  good. 
While  as  much  fat  as 
can  be  put  on  it,  with- 
in a  short  time,  im- 
proves the  poorest  of 
poultry,  there  is  no 
process  or  ration  that 
will  make  a  first-class 
fat  bird  cut  of  what 
was  an  inferior  one  be- 
fore fattening.  We  can 
pdt  on  material  of  any 
kind  only  such  finish 
as  it  is  capable  of  tak- 
ing. While  special  fat- 
tening processes  give 
fine  results  when  ap- 
plied to  proper  materi- 
al with  skill  and  judg- 
ment, they  are  often 
detrimental  when  ap- 
plied by  unskilled  per- 
sons to  birds  that  will 
not  sufficiently  benefit 
by  them  to  justify  the 
trouble.  Unless  one 
proposes  to  go  into 
fattening  for  market 
thoroughly,  and  on  a 
considerable  scale,  it  is 
usually  better  to  keep 
to  the  simplest  meth- 
ods of  fattening. 

Fattening  Broilers 
Broilers  are  killed  at 


'SOUTH    SHORE" 


from  three-fourths  of  a  pound  to  a  pound  and  a  quarter, 
or  for  large  broilers  up  to  two  pounds  or  over.  The 
chicken  as  ordinarily  taken  from  the  yard  at  that  range 
of  weights  is  not  really  FAT,  nor  will  any  ration  that  it  can 
stand  make  it  so.  But  by  feeding  a  ration  rich  in  fatten- 
ing matter,  and  keeping  the  chickens  quite  closely  con- 
fined, comfortable,  and  quiet  for  from  one  to  two  weeks 
before  they  are  to  be  killed,  a  slight  accumulation  of  fat 


85 


86 


HOW  TO  FEED  POULTRY  FOR  ANY  PURPOSE  WITH  PROFIT 


WHITE    PLYMOUTH    ROCK   CAPONS 
Photo  from  S.  K.  Burdin. 

can  be  secured  which  makes  them  more  attractive  to  the 
eye  and  more  savory  to  the  taste.  This  can  be  done 
however,  only  with  stock  of  good  vitality  and  with  a  nat- 
uial  tendancy  to  put  on  fat  readily  at  maturity.  Some 
what  undersized  and  stunted  birds  are  sometimes  fed 
heavy  rations  for  a  longer  period  than  indicated,  and 
those  that  stand  it  sometimes  take  on  rather  more  fat 
than  the  ordinary  broiler,  but  they  do  not  have  the  qual- 
ity of  the  plump,  quickly  grown  bird. 

The  usual  method  of  feeding  to  finish  broilers  is 
simply  to  add  more  corn  and  corn  meal  to  the  ration, 
mixing  the  meal  with  milk  if  it  can  be  obtained,  and 
feeding  all  the  birds  will  eat.  Many  make  the  mash  two- 
thirds  corn  meal,  and  give  cracked  corn  only  for  grain. 
Some  chicks  can  stand  an  all-coin  ration,  and  some  can 
•not.  A  most  important  thing  in  finishing  broilers  is  to 
remove  at  once,  and  kill  as  they  are,  any  chicks  that  the 
forcing  diet  evidently  does  not  suit.  Poultry  keepers 
often  leave  these,  expecting  that  they  will  come  along, 
although  a  little  slower  about,  it  than  the  others.  It  is 
much  better  to  sell  them  for  what  -they  will  bring,  with- 
out further  feeding,  for  the  chances  are  that  they  will 
never  gain  enough  to  pay  the  cost  of  feed  and  care  until 
prices  have  fallen. 

Fattening  Fryers 

A  fryer  is  a  chicken  usually  weighing  about  two 
pounds,  but  occasionally  much  heavier.  There  is  practi- 
cally no  d  fference  between  large  broilers  and  small  fry- 
ers except  that  the  fatter  chickens  are  more  suitable  for 
frying.  In  fact  a  chicken  of  what  is  usually  frying  size, 
if  rather  thin  and  yet  quite  soft  meated,  will  broil  bet- 
ter than  it  will  fry.  Where  chickens  have  been  raised  to 
this  stage  on  range,  the  best  plan  is  to  put  them  in 
small  yards,  with  good  circulation  of  air,  and  shade,  and 
to  give  them  from  ten  days  to  three  weeks  of  high  feed- 
ing before  they  are  to  be  killed.  The  length  of  time 
must  be  determined  by  the  readiness  of  the  chickens  to 
fatten  and  their  ability  to  stand  heavy  feeding.  If  the 
chickens  do  not  take  kindly  to  strong  rations,  these  mat- 
ters can  be  regulated  to  some  extent  by  making  only 
slight  increases  in  the  fattening  material  in  the  feed,  and 
by  using  more  wheat  than  corn  in  the  hard  grain  fed. 

The  safe  way  to  feed  chickens  to  get  a  reasonable 
amount  of  fat  as  they  grow  is  to  keep  close  to  a  good 
growing  ration,  but  yard  them  quite  closely.  When  this 
is  done — especially  in  warm  weather — care  must  be  taken 
to  keep  everything  clean,  and  if  feed  is  allowed  to  stand 
before  the  chickens,  to  see  that  it  does  not  get  fouled. 
In  this  way  chickens  can  be  kept  growing  and  carrying 
a  fair  amount  of  fat  for  an  indefinite  period,  often  until 
well  grown.  Such  a  course  is  especially  advantageous  to 
those  who  hatch  or  buy  all  their  chickens  at  one  time 
in  the  spring,  and  who  want  to  have  the  cockerels  ready 
to  kill  for  their  own  tables  through  quite  a  long  season. 


In  this  way  the  cockerels  may  be 
carried  from  broiler  to  small  roaster 
size,  the  removals  week  by  week 
making  room  for  the  growing  birds 
that  are  left.  If  the  birds  are  not  as 
fat  as  is  desired  by  this  method,  it 
is  easy  to  take  those  that  are  to  be 
killed  at  a  certain  time  and  put  them 
in  a  small  coop  a  week  in  advance, 
and  feed  a  heavier  ration. 


Fattening   Small  .Roasters 
Ordinary    small  and    medium-sized 
roasters    are    principally   cockerels    of 

the  larger  breeds,  that  are  marketed  just  before  they  be- 
gin to  become  so  hard-meated  and  staggy  that  they  woul 
class  on  the  market  as  old  cocks.  The  greater  part 
them  come  from  the  general  farms,  for  poultry  speci 
ists  usually  either  market  their  surplus  cockerels 
bi  oilers,  or  caponize  them  and  keep  them  to  make  large 
roasters.  Most  of  the  cockerels  from  the  farms  are  in 
just  fair  flesh  when  marketed,  and  from  one-half  to  three- 
fourths  grown.  They  are  at  the  stage  where  heavy  feed- 
ing for  a  short  period  will  generally  increase  the  siz 
put  on  a  fair  amount  of  fat,  and  greatly  improve  the 


1 


A  PAIR  OF  WHITE  PLYMOUTH  ROCK  "SOUTH  SHORE" 
SOFT   ROASTERS 

These  are  capons  but  are  not  dressed  "capon  style" 
— that  is,  with  the  feathers  left  on  neck,  wings,  legs  and 
part  of  the  back.  All  "South  Shore"  stock  is  fully  dressed 
for  market — capons  as  well  as  pullets. 


FATTENING  AND  FINISHING  POULTRY  FOR  THE  TABLE 


87 


table  quality.  As  farmers  generally  are  indifferent  to 
the  possibilities  of  considerably  increasing  their  returns 
from  the  cockerels  in  this  way,  the  practice  of  special 
fattening  these  chickens  has  grown  up  among  the  poultry 
packers,  and  many  of  them  find  it  very  profitable.  At 
the  same  time  the  buyers  and  jobbers  in  poultry  mostly 
take  the  position  that  this  work  could  be  done  economi- 
cally and  much  more  satisfactorily  by  the  growers  on  the 
farms.  They  would  rather  have  the  grower  send  them 
finished  products;  but  if  growers  will  not  do  this,  then 
the  large  buyers  will  engage  in  fattening  as  long  as 
the  numbers  of  unfinished 
chickens  they  receive  make  it 
worth  while  to  do  so. 

Where  stock  of  this  class 
has  been  so  well  fed  that  it 
is  in  good  flesh,  perhaps  a 
little  fat,  and  quite  soft- 
meated,  the  best  method  is  to 
put  the  birds  in  yards  and 
feed  liberally  of  a  good  grow- 
ing ration,  including  a  gener- 
ous supply  of  green  feed,  and 
all  the  milk  they  will  drink, 
keeping  them  on  this  diet  for 
a  week  or  two,  according  to 
their  condition.  Then  put 
them  in  a  pen  that  can  be 
made  so  dark  that  they  will 
not  move  about,  and  let  the 
light  into  this  pen  only  long 
enough  to  allow  them  to  fill 
up  with  feed  three  times  a 
day.  A  good  ration  at  this 
time  is:  Two  feeds  a  day  of 
clean,  sound  cracked  corn. 

one  feed  a  day  of  a  mash  of  2  parts  of  corn  meal  and  1  part 
of  wheat  bran,  with  10  per  cent  of  meat  scrap  added.  This 
feeding  can  be  continued  as  long  as  the  chickens  eat 
well,  or  until  they  are  as  fat  as  desired.  Usually  chickens 
will  be  as  fat  as  most  people  want  them  in  a  week  to 
ten  days,  though  many  chickens  that  are  rugged  at  the 
beginning  of  this  course  of  treatment  will  stand  high 
feeding  in  the  dark  for  two  weeks  or  more. 

The  great  advantage  of  feeding  this  way  is  that  the 
preliminary  period  of  feeding  makes  the  change  from  an 
ordinary  to  a  heavy  ration  so  easy  that  the  birds  adjust 
themselves  to  it  without  going  off  their  feed,  and  when 
they  are  put  on  the  heavy  fattening  diet  they  have  be- 
come just  lazy  enough  to  take  kindly  to  being  kept  in 
the  dark  after  eating.  In  this  method  of  fattening  the 
risk  of  the  birds  going  off  their  feed  before  they  have 
fattened  is  reduced  to  the  minimum.  In  it,  however,  and 
in  all  fattening,  it  must  be  understood  that  unthrifty  birds 
with  poor  digestion  will  not  fatten,  and  it  is  a  waste  of 
time  and  feed  to  try  to  make  them  do  so.  Any  little  gains 
that  they  make  cost  more  than  they  are  worth. 

Fattening  Large  Roasters  and  Capons 

Large  roasters  are  principally  capons.  Where  win- 
ter chickens  are  grown  for.  the  table,  the  most  of  the 
pullets  are  sold  for  roasting  as  soon  as  they  begin  to 
lay,  and  some  growers  of  Asiatics  have  young  males  re- 
main soft  long  enough  to  be  sold  for  large  roasters;  but 
in  the  main,  cockerels  that  are  to  be  kept  for  large  roast- 
ers are  caponized.  As  the  large  roaster  is  carried  until 
full  grown  before  fattening  for  market,  the  method  of 
feeding  is  not  much  different  from  that  used  for  growing 
pullets  for  laying  and  stock  birds.  The  market  chickens 


are  usually  crowded  a  little  more  in  the  yards  and  houses, 
and  fed  with  less  attention  to  exercise.  The  less  exer- 
cise they  take  the  more  economically  they  are  grown — 
provided  only  that  they  take  enough  to  ward  off  indi- 
gestion. 

The  famous  "so'uth  shore"  soft  roasters  of  Massa- 
chusetts are  mostly  fed  from  the  time  they  leave  the 
brooders  until  they  are  ready  for  market  on  the  simple 
ration  of  cracked  corn,  meat  scrap,  green  feed,  and  water, 
as  mentioned  on  page  62.  This  is  their  fattening  as  well 
as  their  growing  ration.  The  principle  upon  which  they 


FATTENING    CRATE    USED 
THE    DOMINION 


AND    RECOMMENDED    BY    THE    POULTRY    DIVISION    OF 
OF    CANADA    DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 

are  fed  and  handled  is  to  give  a  simple,  substantial  grow- 
ing ration — one  that  reduces  the  labor  in  feeding  to  the 
minimum  and  will  produce  as  much  fat  as  the  bird  will 
carry  while  growing,  with  an  increased  production  of  fat 
as  soon  as  growth  stops.  The  bird  then  -is  watched 
closely,  and  when  the  fattening  has  reached  a  stage 
which  experts  in  handling  this  class  of  poultry  judge  not 
by  the  amount  of  fat,  but  by  the  appearance  of  the  skin, 
it  is  marketed.  The  chickens  grown  in  this  way  are 
quite  different  in  appearance  from  those  that  put  on  all 
their  fat  in  a  short  time  before  being  killed.  The  fat  is 
much  more  evenly  distributed,  and  by  killing  when  the 
skin  shows  its  best  texture  and  color  the  bird  goes  to 
the  table  when  the  proportion  of  fat  to  lean  in  the  meat 
is  most  appetizing.  The  grower  of  this  class  of  poultry 
characterizes  the  proper  condition  for  killing  as  being 
"ripe."  He  holds  that  a  chicken,  like  fruit,  comes  to  a 
stage  'when  it  is  at  its  best,  and  after  that  deteriorates. 
The  teim  "ripe"  as  used  by  growers  of  poultry  should 
not  be  confounded  with  the  same  term  as  used  to  ex- 
press the  condition  of  meat  held  after  slaughter  until  just 
before  the  tissues  begin  to  break  down. 

Fattening  Old  Fowls 

It  is  doubtful  whether  it  pays  to  go  any  farther  in 
efforts  to  fatten  old  hens  and  roosters  than  can  be  done 
in  a  very  short  period  of  heavy  feeding,  with  birds  that 
are  in  good  condition  at  the  beginning  of  it.  In  flocks 
that  are  culled  only  at  long  intervals  there  are  likely  to 
be  many  old  birds  in  run-down  condition  and  not  having 
good  digestion,  that  are  yet  not  so  far  gone  but  that 
proper  care  and  feeding  will,  in  time,  make  good  table 
poultry  of  them.  The  time  required  for  this,  however, 


88 


HOW  TO  FEED  POULTRY  FOR  ANY  PURPOSE  WITH  PROFIT 


may  be  so  long,  and  the  amount  of  feed  consumed  in  it 
so  great,  that  the  operation  is  unprofitable.  If  the  poul- 
try keeper  watches  the  condition  of  the  stock  as  he  should, 
none  of  the  old  birds  need  ever  get  so  low  in  flesh  that 
they  cannot  be  made  as  fat  as  necessary  for  market  with 
two  weeks'  feeding  of  a  ration  composed  largely  of  corn. 
Any  of  the  rations  for  fattening  roasters  will  quickly  make 
hens  and  cocks  that  are  capable  of  taking  on  fat  at  a 
profit,  as  fat  as  the  consumer  wants  them.  The  exces- 
sively fat  hens  that  are  often  seen  in  the  markets,  which 
careful  buyers  avoid  because  the  most  of  their  fat  can 
be  utilized  only  in  cooking  operations  for  which  cheaper 
fats  will  serve,  are  mostly  nonlayers  that  have  been  in 
this  condition  for  months. 

Some  of  the  special  fattening  methods  which  will 
shortly  be  described  frequently  fatten  old  fowls  quicker 
and  better  than  ordinary  methods  but,  on  the  other  hand, 
they  so  often  unfavorably  affect  individuals,  and  some- 
times the  entire  lot  on  which  they  are  used,  that  the  re- 
turns, on  the  whole,  are  no  greater  than  if  no  effort  had 
been  made  to  finish  stock  before  marketing.  The  poul- 
try keeper  will  almost  always  find  that  his  best  policy 
is  to  feed  for  growth,  or  for  eggs,  and  always  with  a 
view  to  keeping  stock  in  good  condition,  and  then  when 
the  time  comes  to  sell  a  bird  for  market,  whether  as 
broiler,  fryer,  roaster,  or  fowl,  he  can  put  it  in  as  good 
condition  as  the  market  requires  with  from  one  to  three 
weeks'  feeding  for  that  purpose  in  ordinary  coops  and 
yards. 

Crate  Fattening 

Crate  fattening  is  the  feeding  of  chickens  confined  in 
crates  or  coops  in  which  they  have  little  more  than 
standing  room,  supplying  mashes  of  the  consistency  of 
thin  mush  or  gruel,  fed  to-  them  in  troughs  outside  the 
coops,  from  which  they  eat  by  reaching  through  the  slats 
which  form  the  front  of  the  coop  or  crate.  Some  birds 
take  readily  to  this  diet  and  method  and  put  on  fat  and 
increase  more  in  growth  during  the  period  thay  can  stand 
it  than  when  fed  in  the  ordinary  way  and  given  more 
freedom.  Some  it  does  not  suit  at  all,  and  the  matter  of 
first  importance  where  crate  fattening  is  practiced  is  to 
judge  at  the  beginning  of  feeding  what  birds  can  be 
profitably  fed  in  this  way  and  what  cannot,  and  not  use 
the  method  on  birds  with  which  :t  does  not  agree.  This 
is  something  that  of  course  can  only  be  learned  by  ex- 
perience, and  the  novice  must  expect  to  make  some 
mistakes. 

Crate  fattening,  or  any  other  special  process  of  fin- 
ishing poultry  for  the  table,  is  of  some  interest  to  every- 
one who  grows  any  considerable  amount  of  poultry.  It 
is  worth  while  to  know  something  of  these  methods  even 
if  the  poultry  keeper  has  no  occasion  to  use  them  reg- 
ularly. There  are  times  when  ordinary  methods  are  not 
giving  results  as  quickly  as  desired.  Thus  when  it  is 
important  to  put  chickens  in  good  shape  for  killing  in 
hot  weather,  and  they  either  have  a  poor  appetite  for  the 
ordinary  hearty  ration,  or  it  does  not  seem  to  agree  with 
them,  the  soft,  semiliquid  feed  mixed  with  milk,  which  is 
preferred  in  crate  fattening,  can  often  be  used  for  as 
many  feeds  a  day  as  seems  advisable.  This  feed,  in  fact, 
is  much  like  the  mashes  mixed  with  milk  which  are  rec- 
ommended for  chickens  in  hot  weather,  except  that  it  is 
thinner,  and  instead  of  using  bran  to  make  the  mash  light, 
corn  meal,  oatmeal,  or  other  substantial  feed  is  used. 

Consideration  of  the  points  involved  shows  quite, 
clearly  that  to  add  to  ordinary  fattening  processes  what 
may  be  of  particular  value  in  special  fattening  methods 
does  not  necessarily  call  for  the  appliance  and  the 


:i 


method  used  in  crate  fattening.  The  essential  things  in 
fattening  are  to  get  the  bird  to  eat  as  much  as  possible 
of  highly  nourishing  feed  that  agrees  with  it;  to  keep  it 
contented,  comfortable  and  quiet,  that  all  the  nutriment 
possible  may  go  to  fat,  or  to  flesh  and  fat;  and  either 
to  modify  the  ration  to  meet  requirements  when  it  seems 
to  be  having  slightly  unfavorable  effects,  or  when  these 
are  more  seiious,  to  dispose  of  the  bird  before  it  loses 
any  of  what  has  been  gained.  The  crate  is  simply  a  con- 
venience, adapted  especially  to  the  use  of  fatteners  who 
do  not  grow  their  poultry,  or  to  times  when  a  poultry 
grower  finds  it  more  convenient  to  feed  a  few  birds  this 
way  than  to  give  them  space  that  he  needs  or  can  use  to 
advantage  for  other  poultry. 

It  makes  little,  if  any,  difference  whether  the  birds 
being  fattened  eat  the  grains  given  them  in  the  form  of 
an  ordinary  mash,  and  drink  a  certain  amount  of  milk 
with  it,  or  take  the  same  groud  feeds  mixed  in  the  milk. 
After  feeding  a  soft,  semi-liquid  mash  for  a  time  on 
cannot  well  go  back  to  hard  grains  without  more  di 
turbing  effects  on  digestion  than  the  soft  feeds  are  cau 
ing,  but  while  the  birds  are  accustomed  to  a  considerable 
part  of  hard  grain  in  their  diet  the  increase  of  soft  feeds 
and  milk  mean  greater  efficiency  in  the  use  of  the  hard 
grain  consumed.  Up  to  the  point  when  indigestion  be- 
gins, the  birds  will  eat  more  of  a  mixed  hard  and  soft 
diet  than  of  either  alone;  after  that  they  will  be  likely 
eat  more  and  benefit  more  on  all  soft  feeds. 

Rations  for  Crate  Fattening 

Bulletin  No.  21  of  the  United  States  Department 
Agriculture  gives  detailed  reports  of  the  fattening 
nearly  900,000  chickens  at  commercial  poultry  fattening 
stations  where  buyers  of  poultry  were  equipped  to  keep 
and  feed  large  numbers  of  poultry  as  long  as  profitable 
gains  could  be  made.  The  following  were  the  rations 
which  gave  the  best  results  in  this  work.  For  conveni- 
ence in  reference,  numbers  are  given  following  those  in 
Chapter  VII. 

Ration   No.  42: 

I — Corn   meal   3   parts,    low    grade   flour   2    parts,    shorts 

1    part. 

II — Corn  meal  3   parts,  low  grade  flour  2   parts. 
Ill — Corn  meal  5   parts,   low   grade   flour  3   parts,   shorts  1 

part,  5  per  cent  tallow. 

IV — Corn   meal   3   parts,   oat  flour   2   parts. 
V — Corn    meal    4    parts,    low    grade    flour    2    parts,    shorts 
1    part. 

These  mixtures  were  all  fed  in  the  same  way,  mixed 
to  the  desired  consistency  with  condensed  buttermilk, 
fresh  buttermilk,  or  water,  as  available.  When  the  sup- 
ply was  sufficient,  10  gallons  or  more  of  condensed  but- 
termilk, or  the  same  quantity  of  semisolid  buttermilk 
suitably  diluted,  was  fed  with  100  pounds  of  grain.  It 
was  found  that  when  an  expert  and  careful  feeder  at- 
tended the  chickens  and  saw  that  they  had  all  they  would 
eat  twice  a  day,  the  gains  were  the  same  as  when  the 
birds  were  fed  three  times  a  day,  while  the  consumption 
of  feed  was  a  little  less.  With  indifferent  attention  to 
feeding  the  results  were  more  satisfactory  when  three 
feeds  a  day  were  given.  In  warm  weather,  rations  with 
the  lowest  proportion  of  corn  meal  and  flour,  and  with 
large  amounts  of  buttermilk,  gave  best  results.  At  this 
time  the  period  required  to  fatten  was  usually  about 
fourteen  days.  In  the  cooler  weather  of  fall,  when  heavier 
rations  could  be  used  and  the  birds'  appetites  were  bet- 
ter, the  usual  length  of  the  period  of  feeding  was  six  or 
seven  days. 

In  commercial  fattening  the  feeder  has  many  diffi- 
culties to  contend  with  that  the  grower  need  not  have. 


FATTENING  AND  FINISHING  POULTRY  FOR  THE  TABLE 


89 


The  chickens  on  a  commercial  fattening  plant  come  from 
here,  there,  and  everywhere,  and  many  of  them  have  been 
so  long  in  transit,  or  held  under  unfavorable  conditions 
and  without  proper  feed  and  care  by  country  buyers,  that 
they  are  in  poorer  flesh  than  when  they  left  the  farm,  and 
perhaps  are  out  of  condition  otherwise.  It  is  a  common 
practice  to  feed  poultry  in  their  shipping  coops  while  be- 
ing held  in  small  numbers  and  in  transit,  the  grain  being 
put  on  the  bottom  of  the  coop  which  is  foul  with  their 
droppings.  Not  only  is  hard  grain  fed  in  this  way,  but 
also  sloppy  mixtures  of  ground  feeds.  A  large  proportion 
of  chickens  subjected  to  such  treatment  suffer  the  usual 
consequences  of  eating  polluted  feed,  while  the  crowding 
and  exposure  cause  roupy  conditions.  These  troubles  the 
grower  can  entirely  avoid.  The  poultry  grower  ought 
also  to  consider  that  a  considerable  part  of  the  losses 
which  result  from  these  things  conies  back  on  him.  It 
is  by  no  means  all  passed  on  to  the  consumer.  The  buyer 
(the  middleman)  protects  himself  by  keeping  his  original 
cost  as  low  as  possible. 

Ration    Xo.   43 — An    Ontario    Agricultural    College    Ration 

I — Barley  meal  2  parts,  corn  meal  or  chop  2  parts,  shorts 
or  middlings  2  parts,  finely  ground  oats  1  part, 
animal  meal  1  part.  This  is  mixed  with  about  one 
and  a  half  times  its  weight  of  skim  millt  and  fed 
three  times  a  day.  The  birds  are  given  water 
twice  a  day. 

II — Corn    meal    2    parts,    ground    buckwheat    2    parts,    pearl 
oat  dust   1   part. 

Ill — Corn    meal    4    parts,    ground    buckwheat    2    parts,    pearl 
oat  dust  2   parts. 

II  and  III  are  substantially  the  same  ration  modified  in 
II  for  hot  weather  and  in  III  for  colder  weather.  Pearl 
oat  dust  alone  is  recommended  as  a  good  ration  when  the 
cost  is  reasonable  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  aver- 
age amount  of  feed  to  make  a  pound  of  gain  in  a  series  of 
crate-fattening  experiments  at  this  institution  was  3.3 
pounds — almost  exactly  the  same  as  the  average  for  a  poun:l 
of  growth  as  reported  from  the  same  place  in  the  preced- 
ing chapter. 

The  Cramming  Method  of  Fattening 
In  England  and  on  the  Continent  of  Europe  where 
there  is  some  demand  for  excessively  fat  poultry,  the 
practice  obtains  to  some  extent  of  cramming  the  birds  by 
forcing  feed  into  the  crop  in  larger  quantities  than  the 
bird  would  voluntarily  take  it.  Efforts  to  introduce  this 
practice  into  America  have  never  met  with  much  encour- 
agement. Two  things  are  against  it  here — the  cost  of 
labor,  and  the  limited  demand  for  poultry  with  more  fat 
than  can  be  put  on  it  by  ordinary  methods  or  by  crate 
feeding.  The  method  is  shown  in  an  accompanying  illus- 
tration. The  successful  practice  of  it  requires  a  con- 
siderable measure  of  judgment  in  the  selection  of  birds 


for  the  process  and  of  skill  in  forcing  into  the  crop  w'th- 
out  particular  distress  to  the  biid  all  the  feed  that  its 
system  can  stand.  By  this  process  birds  can  be  made 
enormously  fat.  The  feed  used  is  the  same  in  substance 


A    CRAMMING   MACHINE    FOR    SPECIAL.   FATTENING 
FOWLS 

In  cramming  or  force-feeding,  the  machine  hopper  is 
filled  with  a  gruel-like  mixture  of  finely  ground  grain 
and  milk  or  water,  and  by  pressure  upon  the  pedal  the 
feed  is  forced  into  the  crop.  In  using  the  machine, 
operator  always  keeps  one  hand  on  the  fowl's  crop  to 
gauge  the  quantity  that  can  safely  be  fed. 

as  in  crate  feeding,  but  must  have  the  milled  stuffs  very 
finely  ground  and  must  be  thin  enough  to  go  through 
the  tube  and  nozzle  by  which  it  passes  from  the  feed 
reservoir  in  the  cramming  machine  into  the  crop  of  the 
bird,  without  clogging. 


CHAPTER    IX 


Feeding  Breeding  and  Exhibition  Fowls 

Good   Laying   Condition   is   Good   Breeding   Condition — Extremely  High  Production  and  Repression  of  Egg  Produc- 
tion Prior  to  the  Breeding  Season  Are  Alike  Detrimental — Moderate  Winter  Egg  Production  Keeps  Hens 
in    Best    Condition    for    the    Breeding    Season — Feeding   Before  and   After  Exhibition — Feeding 
Bantams  to  Get  Small  Size  With  Normal  Development 


THE  greater  part  of  the  poultry  grown  in  this  coun- 
try each  year  comes  from  hens  that  are  kept 
primarily  for  layers,  or  that,  if  not  kept  for  that 
purpose,  lay  a  considerable  proportion  of  their  eggs  be- 
fore and  after  the  breeding  season.  So,  except  in  the 
case  of  a  small  proportion  of  hens  of  unusual  standard 
quality  and  value  for  breeding  whose  eggs  are  incubated 
through  the  entire  season  of  their  laying,  the  work  of 
a  hen  as  a  producer  of  eggs  for  the  table  is  quite  as 
important  to  her  owner  as  her  work  as  a  producer  of 
eggs  for  hatching.  Both  purposes  have  to  be  considered 
in  feeding  the  breeding  stock.  And  even  when  the  breeder 
of  high  quality  standard  stock  takes 
the  position  that,  if  a  hen  of  quality 
gives  him  -4n  the  breeding  season  a 
few  chicks  of  superior  quality  she 
has  earned  her  feed  and  keep  for  the 
year  (though  she  may  not  lay  more 
than  a  dozen  eggs  in  the  year),  what 
seems  financially  justified  is  not  bio- 
logically good  policy. 

To  be  in  good  breeding  condition 
a  hen  must  be  in  good  laying  condi- 
tion. To  show  her  type  truly  when 
exhibited  she  must  be  in  good  laying 
and  breeding  condition  at  the  time. 
That  is  what  the  Standard  demands 
and  the  judge  who  fails  to  give  due 
consideration  to  that  requirement  is 
ignoring  and  perverting  the  applica- 
tion of  the  Standard  no  less  than 
when  he  misapplies  other  .specifica- 
tions. From  what  was  said  in  Chap- 
ter VII  of  the  effects  of  change  of 
location  and  treatment  upon  egg 

production,  and  of  the  reaction  of  such  things  upon  the 
reproductive  system — especially  just  before  a  pullet  begins 
laying,  it  is  apparent  that  the  policy  some  breeders  fol- 
low of  trying  to  prevent  birds  that  would  lay  early  in 
the  winter  from  doing  so,  in  order  that  they  may  not 
exhaust  themselves  in  any  measure  before  the  breeding 
season,  has  its  peculiar  risks,  and  is  as  likely  to  defeat 
as  to  serve  their  purpose. 

Refraining  from  the  use  of  such  forcing  methods  as 
would  be  used  in  efforts  to  get  as  high  egg  production 
as  possible,  is  about  as  far  as  a  breeder  can  safely  go  in 
his  efforts  to  retard  laying  until  the  approach  of  the 
breeding  season.  To  feed  light  with  the  idea  that  the 
ration  will  be  only  a  maintenance  ration,  and  the  hen 
will  not  lay  because  she  has  not  sufficient  extra  nutri- 
ment for  egg  production  does  not  give  the  expected  re- 
sults at  all  uniformly.  Some  hens  will  begin  to  lay  and 
lay  themselves  poor  under  such  conditions.  If  they  are 
fed  well  and  kept  in  good  condition  and  their  rate  of 
egg  production  is  moderate  through  early  and  midwinter, 
thoroughly  vigorous  hens  will  be  in  pretty  fair  condition 
for  producing  chickens  up  to  the  latter  part  of  April  or 
the  middle  of  May,  according  to  the  latitude,  but  unless 


they  have  a  break  in  the  laying  at  some  time  in  the  late 
winter  or  early  spring,  the  chickens  they  produce  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  season  are  not  usually  worth  much.  The 
greater  number  of  hens  from  which  eggs  are  set  lay  few 
eggs  before  February  and,  not  having  been  in  good  laying 
condition  through  the  winter,  usually  turn  out  to  be  not 
in  very  good  breeding  condition  until  they  have  been  out 
on  the  land  for  a  month  or  so. 

Where  egg  production  is  checked  until  near  the 
breeding  season,  either  by  intent  or  by  failure  to  give 
care  to  put  and  keep  hens  in  laying  condition,  the  general 
effect  is  the  same.  Men  may  theorize  all  they  please 


COMFORTABLE     COOPS,     GOOD     RANGE     AND     REGULAR     FEEDING     START 

THESE    VALUABLE    WHITE    PLYMOUTH    ROCKS    ON    THE    RIGHT 

ROAD  TO  BEST  DEVELOPMENT 


about  keeping  their  hens  from  laying  in  the  winter  that 
they  may  get  stronger,'  more  vigorous  chickens  in  the 
spring,  but  when  fertility  is  poor  and  the  chickens  in- 
ferior for  some  time  after  the  hens  start  laying  in  the 
spring,  it  is  clear  that  the  hens  would  have  been  no  worse, 
and  the  poultry  keeper  would  have  been  better  off,  if  they 
had  laid  moderately  all  winter.  Pullets  commonly  fail  to 
lay  as  early  in  the  winter  as  is  desirable  when  they  are 
kept  primarily  for  egg  production,  because  of  the  diffi- 
culties of  getting  them  hatched  and  grown,  and  into1  reg- 
ular laying  without  being  affected  by  the  many  things 
that  may  retard  laying.  It  is  poor  policy  for  a  poultry 
keeper  to  manufacture  such  difficulties  for  the  purpose  of 
keeping  a  pullet  from  laying  for  several  months  after  she 
would  begin  if  not  interfered  with. 

The  breeder  who  is  an  exhibitor  has  to  take  chances 
with  the  birds  he  exhibits.  Their  experiences  in  being 
shown  may  or  may  not  seriously  interfere  with  their  lay- 
ing, but  to  make  a  reputation  for  his  stock  he  must  show 
his  best  birds  no  matter  how  it  affects  their  egg  pro- 
duction. For  the  rest  of  his  stock,  the  aim  always  should 
be  to  keep  it  in  laying  condition  and  also  in  breeding 
condition  continuously,  yet  never  to.  force  beyond  the 


90 


FEEDING  BREEDING  AND  EXHIBITION   FOWLS 


91 


rate  of  production  that  the  hens  will  maintain  on  average 
good  rations,  with  plenty  of  variety  and  plenty  of  exer- 
cise. In  general,  breeding  stock  gives  best  results  when 
given  considerably  more  yard  room  than  is  necessary  for 
hens  kept  for  laying  only.  When  hens  are  laying  in  clo-e 
confinement  and  are  '  well  fed  they  usually  lay  rather 
better  than  when  given  a  large  range.  In  nearly  all  cases. 


FAVORABLE    CONDITIONS    FOR    GROWING    STOCK 

With  plenty  of  room  and  both  sun  and  shade,  chick- 
ens that  are  well  fed  grow  bit;  and  husky.  I'hotn  show.-. 
Mr.  Jos.  Mason  a  veteran  utility  Light  Brahma  breeder. 

other  things  being  equal,  hens  that  are  liberally  fed  meat 
>craps  or  green  cut  bone  will  lay  considerably  more  than 
those  that  are  not. 

So  by  giving  his  breeding  stock  large  yards  or  fairly 
good  range,  and  by  keeping  highly  concentrated  animal 
feeds  out  of  their  rations,  the  poultry  keeper  can  keep 
their  egg  production  20  to  30  per  cent  lower  than  it  would 
be  with  heavy  feeding  of  animal  matter  in  confinement. 
Many  observations  indicate  that  the  substitution  of  milk 
for  meat  scrap  in  rations  fed  to  breeding  stock  gives 
much  better  fertility  in  the  eggs,  and  stronger  germs,  yet 
the  evidence  on  this  point  is  not  so  one-sided  that  it  can 
be  affirmed  that  the  feeding  of  rations  containing  heavy 
percentages  of  meat  invariably  makes  for  lower  fertility 
and  vitality.  Matters  relating  to  fertility  are  the  most 
complicated  and  obscure  and  the  least  understood  of  all 
questions  that  call  for  consideration  of  poultry  keepers; 
and  comparisons  of  results  in  different  flocks,  handled  by 
different  persons  under  different  conditions,  throw  no 
light  on  the  subject  except  as  careful  observers  are  able 
to  make  first-hand  studies  of  cases.  Practically  no  sys- 
tematic work  of  this  kind  has  been  done.  All  the  com- 
parative observations  on  fertility  that  have  been  pub- 
lished are  for  different  flocks  on  the  same  plant. 

The  writer  regards  it  as  quite  improbable  that  the 
feeding  of  any  article  of  poultry  feed  is,  in  itself,  capable 
of  having  any  marked  influence  on  fertility — either  one 
way  or  the  other.  But  high  feeding  is  generally  more  or 

detrimental  to  fertility  in  all  animals,  and  it  is  to  be 
expected  that  in  a  comparison  between  results  of  feeding- 
breeding  stock  a  hearty  grain  ration  made  richer  by  the 
addition  of  highly  concentrated  animal  feeds,  and  the 
same  ration  modified  with  milk,  the  latter  would  quite 
regularly  show  the  best  fer'ility.  At  the  same  time  it  is 
in  line  with  many  observations,  and  altogether  reasonable, 
to  suppose  that  the  same  difference  would  follow  were 
the  ration  modified  in  some  other  way — as  by  the  feeding 
of  green  feed  to  the  extent  that  would  modify  a  grain  and 
meat  ration  as  much  as  an  unstinted  allowance  of  milk 
modifies  a  grain  ration. 


In  practically  all  statements  of  rations,  the  amount 
of  green  feed  consumed  is  either  an  unknown  quantity, 
or  is  much  less  than  poultry  would  consume  if  they  could 
get  all  they  wanted.  Breeding  stock  on  range  on  grass 
land,  or  on  land  growing  a  crop  which  the  poultry  do 
not  eat,  and  from  which  they  take  as  vegetable  feeds,  grass 
and  weeds,  will  get  also  large  quantities  of  worms  and 
insects.  Breeding  stock  in  poultry  yards  sown  to  rape 
or  a  similar  growing  crop,  to  which  they  are  allowed  ac- 
cess only  as  they  eat  it  quite  clean,  and  breeding  stock 
in  yards  which  afford  no  green  feed,  but  where  green 
feed  of  some  kind  grown  outside  is  supplied  as  freely  as 
they  will  eat  it,  cannot  get  any  considerable  amount  of 
animal  feed  for  themselves. 

In  such  cases  some  concentrated  animal  feed  is  nec- 
essary— not  so  much  as  when  it  is  desired  to  secure  the 
heaviest  egg  production  possible  under  similar  conditions, 
but  still  enough  to  make  a  mash  appetizing.  It  is  desir- 
able, whenever  it  is  practical,  to  keep  breeding  fowls 
where  they  will  be  well  fed  on  a  variety  of  feed  without 
giving  them  anything  but  a  little  hard  grain.  But  only 
the  small  breeding  flock  on  a  relatively  large  and  good 
range  can  have  these  advantages,  and  when  the  truth 
about  this  matter  is  told,  the  bulk  of  the  better-than- 
average  standard  stock  produced  every  year  comes  from 
breeding  stock  that  has  not  by  any  means  ideal  conditions 
of  range,  but  is  given,  as  far  as  possible,  the  care  nec- 
essary to  make  up  for  this  lack. 

The  less  concentrated  rations,  whether  modified  with 
milk,  or  with  vegetable  feed,  generally  give,  a  smaller  egg 
yield.  As  between  hens  kept  under  the  same  conditions 
it  is  often  noticeable  that  if  one  pen  is  laying  very  heav- 
ily, say  up  to  75  or  80  per  cent,  and  another  is  laying 
about  50  per  cent,  the  pen  having  the  lowest  egg  yield 
will  give  the  best  fertility  and  the  most  chickens.  Both 
pens  being  fed  alike  it  would  appear  that  the  ration  was 
a  better  laying  ration,  for  one  pen  than  for  the  other-  — 
that  the  pen  that  laid  at  the  lowest  rate  would  need 
something  more  stimulating  to  bring  it  to  its  best  in  egg 
production.  Most  people  in  feeding  poultry  seem  to  find 
it  easier  to  make  the  changes  necessary  to  bring  up  egg 
production,  than  to  make  those  that  will  slow  up  egg 
production  without  putting  the  fowl  out  of  condition.  The 
best  way  to  do  this  is  gradually  to  cut  out  all  ground 
feed,  giving  less  of  it  each  day  for  about  a  week  and 
then  stopping  it  entirely,  but  feeding  liberally  of  wheat, 
barley,  heavy  oats,  or  hard,  bright  cracked  corn,  until 
the  egg  production  goes  down  to  about  an  average  of  50 
per  cent.  If  it  seems  likely  to  go  below  that  feed  mash 
and  meat  or  cut  bone  moderately  until  it  comes  back  and 
is  held  at  an  average  just  above  50  per  cent. 

At  this  general  rate  of  production  most  of  the  hens 
in  a  flock  will  throw  good  strong  chickens  and  do  fo 
until  quite  late  in  the  season,  even  though  they  have  laid 
continuously  through  the  winter  and  spring.  The  hen  is 
in  better  condition,  her  vitality  is  better  maintained,  and 
she  has  more  of  it  to  transmit  to  her  offspring.  If  kept 
through  the  breeding  season  on  a  diet  and  system  that 
gives  only  what  may  be  regarded  as  a  normal  production 
of  eggs  for  so  long  a  period,  she  is  also  more  likely  to 
lay  well  through  the  remainder  of  the  year,  when  her 
eggs  are  used  for  the  table. 

Feeding  in  Preparation  for  Exhibition 

Theoretically,  birds  that  are  bred  right — for  the  right 
size,  weight,  and  type — and  grown  right  (if  young),  or 
kept  in  normal  condition  through  their  molt  (if  old),  do 
not  require  any  special  feeding.  But  the  seasoned  ex- 


92 


HOW  TO  FEED  POULTRY  FOR  ANY  PURPOSE  WITH  PROFIT 


hibitor  neither  takes  it  for  granted  that  any  of  his  well- 
fed  birds  will  be  all  right  to  take  out  of  the  flock  and 
put  in  the  showroom,  nor  does  he  put  off  inspection  of 
the  biids  from  which  his  entries  will  be  selected  until 
time  to  begin  the  work  of  grooming  and  training  them 
for  exhibition.  Long  before  the  time  for  that  he  has 
noted  the  most  likely  candidates  for  competitions,  and 
from  the  time  a  bird  is  thus  marked  in  his  mind  he 
watches  its  condition  closely,  and  if  it  does  not  appear 
to  him  to  be  growing  and  developing,  or  molting  as  it 
should,  he  takes  such  measures  as  seem  advisable  to  in- 
sure better  development. 

In  giving  exhibition  stock  the  finish  in  form  and 
plumage  that  birds  must  have  to  stand  well  in  poultry 
shows  of  the  first  class,  conditions  of  life  count  for  as 
much  as  feed — sometimes  more.  And  this  applies  not 
merely  to  conditions  of  life  in  a  short  period  before  the 
exhibition  at  -which  the  bird  is  displayed,  but  to  condi- 
tions from  the  time  of  hatching.  Crowding  in  the  coops 
and  houses,  confinement  in  bare  yards,  and  even  over- 
stocking the  range  for  growing  chicks  as  much  as  might 
be  admissible  with  birds  for  breeders  (not  to  be  exhibited) 
if  well  managed  in  every  other  respect,  must  be  carefully 
avoided.  Nearly  all  consistently  successful  exhibitors  at 
the  leading  shows  give  their  stock  far  more  room,  both 
indoors  and  out,  at  every  period  of  life,  than  is  generally 
considered  necessary.  To  one  who  does  not  appreciate 
perfection  of  finish  in  fowls,  and  how  much  this  depends 
upon  natural  conditions  of  life,  it  often  appears  that  the 
breeder  of  first-class  exhibition  stock  is  not  making  good 
use  of  his  opportunities — not  half  utilizing  the  capacity 
of  his  land  and  equipment.  But  the  exhibitor  has  learned 
by  experience  that  though  much  may  be  done  to  improve 
a  specimen  by  extra  feed  and  care  in  a  few  weeks  prior 
to  a  show,  it  is  only  the  specimen  that  has  little  "wrong 
with  it  when  taken  in  hand  at  that  time  that  will  respond 
to  treatment  in  a  measure  that  justifies  the  trouble. 

With  experienced  feeders  and  exhibitors  who  have 
grown  their  stock  well  and  kept  old  birds  in  good  con- 
dition, special  feeding  for  exhibition  is  mostly  a  matter 
of  hastening  or  retarding  development  of  specimens,  as 
far  as  that  can  be  done  without  radical  treatment,  in 
order  to  have  them  in  their  best  con- 
dition at  the  time  they  are  to  be 
shown.  Birds  are  at  their  best  in 
color  and  condition  of  plumage  for 
only  a  short  time  after  the  coat  of 
feathers  is  fully  grown.  Hence  ex- 
hibitors plan  to  have  certain  birds 
ready  for  certain  shows.  If  the  birds 
develop  according  to  expectations,  no 
special  feeding  is  necessary.  But  if 
a  bird  is  coming  too  fast  or  too 
slow  the  poultryman  tries  to  retard 
or  to  hasten  development  according- 
ly. Also  it  frequently  happens  that 
an  accident  to  a  bird  selected  for  ex- 
hibition at  a  particular  show  makes 
it  necessary  to  substitute  a  less  ma- 
ture young  bird,  or  an  old  one  not 
so  far  advanced  in  the  molt,  and  per- 
haps not  up  in  flesh;  or  a  slight  in- 
disposition may  put  a  bird  back;  or 
something  may  interfere  with  the 
work  of  a  poultryman  to  such  an 
extent  that  through  no  fault  of  his 
the  stock  generally  needs  extra  care. 


Under  any  of  these  conditions  the  birds  that  are  to  be 
exhibited  must  have  forcing  feed  to  put  them  in  condition 
seasonably.  Finally,  as  most  birds  that  are  shipped  any 
distance  to  shows  lose  considerable  in  weight  and  condi- 
tion before  they  get  back  home,  it  is  desirable  that  the 
bird  sent  to  the  show  should  start  with  a  little  reserve 
of  fat.  The  exhibitor  of  poultry  is,  in  his  field,  as  much 
interested  and  as  proficient  in  "fleshing  and  fattening" 
poultry  as  is  the  producer  of  fine  table  poultry  in  his. 

In  all  the  literature  on  this  subject  there  has  never 
appeared  a  more  pertinent  and  concise  statement  in  re- 
gard to  the  feeding  of  birds  in  preparation  for  exhibition 
than  the  following  from  the  pen  of  Mr.  A.  C.  Smith,  pub- 
lished twenty  years  ago,  yet  as  applicable  today: 

"To  get  the  required  amount  of  exercise  in  confined 
quarters,  a  litter  of  leaves,  coarse  hay,  or  rye  straw  should 
be  placed  upon  the  ground  to  the  depth  of  four  or  five 
inches.  A  few  oats  should  be  scattered  in  this  as  soon 
as  the  birds  are  fairly  off  the  roost  in  the  morning,  if  it 
is  during  the  short  days  of  winter.  Then  as  soon  as  the 
mash  can  be  prepared  the  birds  should  receive  about  two 
heaping  teaspoonfuls  each.  This  small  quantity  warms 
them  up,  and  sets  the  machinery  of  their  digestive  organs 
to  work,  but  .is  not  enough  to  destroy  their  appetite  for 
more.  This  mash  should  be  made  of  ground  oats  and 
corn  meal;  or  corn  meal,  flour,  middlings,  and  bran.  The 
proportions  should  be  governed  by  the  quality  of  the 
goods.  A  mash  that  is  so  light  in  substance  that  it  does 
not  cling  together  is  not  rich  enough;  neither  is  a  tough, 
doughy  mash  what  is  desired.  This  mash  should  be  sea- 
soned lightly  with  salt,  but  no  spices  whatever  should  be 
used,  as  they  tend  to  intensify  the  color  of  the  head  parts 
for  a  time  only,  and  to  diminish  it  in  proportion  after- 
wards. It  is  also  advisable  to  use  a  small  quantity  of 
bone  meal  in  the  mash  every  morning,  and  twice  a  week 
a  little  icfined  fish  meal,  say,  one-twelfth  or  so.  This  is 
a  forcing  feed  and  but  little  should  be  employed  unless 
it  is  desired  to  bring  females  toward  a  laying  state.  Clover 
meal  should  be  used  once  or  twice  a  week  in  this  morn- 
ing mash.  It  is  preferable  to  cut  clover  as  the  latter  is 
too  bulky  in  the  crop,  and  often  clogs  the  passage  to  the 
digestive  organs. 

"The  fowls  should  be  kept  scratching  until  noon, 
when  the  green  feed  should  be  given.  Everyone  has  his 
preference.  The  writer  prefers  cabbages,  as  they  are  the 
greenest  and  tenderest  things  to  be  procured  in  the  win- 
ter months.  Green  feed  can  be  placed  before  them  in 
two  days;  it  may  be  chopped  and  a  certain  amount  fed 


A    BREEDING    PEN    OF    RHODE    ISLAND    REDS    ON    THE    FARM    OF    LESTER 
TOMPKINS,  CONCORD,  MASSACHUSETTS 

From  a  photograph  by  the  author  in  the  spring  of  1907.  This  pen  was  of 
birds  then  eight  years  old  that  had  been  kept  mated  just  as  shown  in  the  pic- 
ture for  seven  years. 


FEEDING  BREEDING  AND  EXHIBITION  FOWLS 


93 


every  day,  or  it  may  be  given  in  unlimited  supply.  If  it 
is  furnished  without  restriction  it  must  be  kept  constantly 
before  the  fowls  otherwise  they  are  liable  to  eat  too 
much  when  a  new  allowance  is  supplied. 

"Between  three  and  four  o'clock  the  fowls  should  be 
given  the  heartiest  meal  of  the  day.  The  exact  time  that 
it  should  be  given  depends  upon  the  length  of  the  day. 
The  object  is  to  give  the  fowls  an  hour  to  an  hour  and 
a  half  of  exercise  before  they  go  to  roost.  Considerable 
-can  be  accomplished  by  a  selection  of  grains.  If  the 
birds  are  too  fleshy,  more  barley  and  less  wheat  should 
be  used  for  the  evening  feed.  Wheat  and  barley  are  the 
best  feeds  at  this  time.  If  the  weather  is  very  cold,  and 
the  birds  in  a  normal  state  of  flesh,  a  small  handful  of 
corn  may  be  allowed  each  one  just  before  it  jumps  on 
the  perch  for  the  night.  With  fowls  that  are  in  poor 
flesh  it  is  well  to  use  more  wheat  and  but  little  oats  or 


a  large-framed  bird;  but  the  faults  in  plumage  that  come 
from  limited  nourishment  while  the  feathers  are  growing 
cannot  be  greatly  helped  by  any  course  of  diet. 

The  use  of  condiments  and  drugs  of  various  kinds 
in  fitting  birds  for  exhibition,  which  was  somewhat  com- 
mon in  early  days,  is  now  little  practiced.  Fowls  havs 
to  be  rugged  and  firm  in  flesh  to  stand  up  in  an  exhibi- 
tion coop  for  five  or  six  days  and  evenings,  and  giving 
them  "dope"  of  any  kind  beforehand  while  it  may  serve 
as  a  stimulant  for  the  first  day  or  two  leaves  them  much 
worse  through  the  latter  part  of  the  show  than  if  they 
had  been  given  only  wholesome  feed.  Most  old  exhibi- 
tors have  at  hand  at  shows  a  few  simple  remedies  or 
tonics  to  give  to  birds  that  may  become  sick,  but  beyond 


SCENE    ON    BLUE    ROCK  FARM,     IOWA     CITY,     IA. 
Colony    houses    ready    for    exhibition    pullet    stock    when    the    chicks    are    weaned. 


barley  for  a   scratching  feed.     Corn  should  be  given   for 
the  evening  feed  to  birds  in  this  condition. 

"Young  birds  of  the  heavier  breeds  which  are  some- 
what underweight  should  not  be  forced  to  overexercisft. 
In  such  cases  increase  of  weight  is  the  main  point,  but 
a  moderate  amount  of  exercise  will  prove  advantageous 
in  these  cases  also.  A  great  variety  of  feed  should  be 
sought  for  such  birds.  The  mash  should  have  a  greater 
proportion  of  corn  meal.  Broken  sweet  crackers  of  all 
sorts  may  be  used  to  good  advantage  in  connection  with 
corn  meal  and  bran  as  a  soft  feed.  In  cold  weather  sun- 
flower seeds  and  buckwheat  in  small  amounts  are  good 
agents  in  securing  the  desired  object.  They  are  also  in- 
strumental in  procuring  the  lustre  of  plumage  so  much 
desired  by  exhibitors.  Beef  tallow  is  very  good  to  give 
a  lustre  to  the  coat  Too  much  is  not  beneficial  to  the 
health  of  the  bird,  but  a  piece  one-half  the  size  of  an 
English  walnut  every  second  day  will  answer  the  pur- 
pose, and  prove  a  great  treat  to  the  birds." 

As  a  substitute  for  sweet  crackers  mentioned  above, 
which  cannot  always  be  obtained,  many  exhibitors  use 
sugar,  giving  from  a  teaspoonful  to  a  tablespoonful  per 
bird  in  the  mash.  It  is  regarded  as  particularly  useful 
where  it  is  desired  to  increase  weight  rapidly  and  tempo- 
rarily. As  soon  as  a  bird  fattened  on  sugar  has  that  article 
taken  from  its  ration,  the  fat  it  had  supplied  begins  to  dis- 
appear. As  far  as  weight  alone  is  concerned,  heavy  feed- 
ing for  a  short  time  before  a  show  will  accomplish  a  great 
deal.  It  is  not  difficult  to  add  from  a  pound  to  a  pound 
and  a  half  to  the  weight  of  a  nearly  grown,  but  thin 
bird  of  medium  size  in  a  few  weeks — and  even  more  to 


that  they  rely  upon  the  appropriate  use  of  ordinary  feeds 
to  put  and  keep  the  birds  in  as  good  condition  as  is  pos- 
sible under  the  stress  and  excitement  incident  to  ex- 
hibiting them. 

Feeding  Birds  After  Exhibition 

The  experience  of  a  trip  from  home,  from  four  to  six 
long  days  in  the  showroom,  perhaps  with  irregular  feed- 
ing, overfeeding  at  one  time  and  a  long  wait  for  feed  at 
another,  and  a  return  trip,  in  all  making  usually  six  to 
eight  days  of  abnormal  and  disturbing  life,  puts  mosx 
birds  somewhat  out  of  condition,  and  is  apt  to  start  many- 
cases  of  mild  indigestion.  Probably  the  majority  of  bird, 
returned  from  exhibition  are  in  rather  poorer  condition 
than  when  they  went.  Birds  of  the  heavier  breeds,  how- 
ever, and  especially  old  birds  that  after  a  day  or  tw  > 
appeared  tired  and  sluggish,  and  that  were  fed  freely,  are 
apt  to  be  overfat  and  also  considerably  lower  in  vitality 
than  when  they  left  home. 

Birds  that  are  below  par  in  condition  should  not  be 
put  immediately  on  a  full,  heavy  ration.  For  a  day  or 
two,  about  three-fourth's  of  what  they  had  been  eating 
before  going  to  the  show  is  enough.  On  this  the  diges- 
tive organs  will  soon  come  back  to  normal,  the  birds  will 
be  bright  and  lively  and  have  keen  appetites.  Good,  sweet, 
succulent  feed  is  the  one  thing  that  may  be  given  them 
from  the  first  without  stint;  for  it  is  the  great  regulator 
of  digestion.  The  ration  can  be  gradually  increased  until, 


94 


HOW  TO  FEED  POULTRY  FOR  ANY  PURPOSE  WITH  PROFIT 


at  the  end  of  a  week,  they  are  getting  their  accustomed 
allowance. 

Birds  that  are  overfat  when  returned  from  a  show 
should  be  put  at  once  on  a  diet  of  hard  grain  and  suc- 
culent green  feed,  giving  little  corn,  and  making  them 
work  a  reasonable  amount  for  the  light  feeds  of  other 
grains  necessary  to  put  the  digestive  organs  in  good  con- 
dition while  the  birds  are  reducing  weight  and  getting  ii> 
trim  again. 

Experience  shows  that  full  return  to  good  breeding 
condition  and  fertility  usually  takes  several  weeks,  and  in 
many  individual  cases  may  take  several  months.  It  ap- 
pears to  be  largely  a  question  of  how  sensitive  a  bird  is 
to  change,  excitement,  and  irregular  life,  and  of  the  extent 
to  which  it  has  been  shown.  Neither  the  looses  and  ac- 
tions of  the  birds  nor  the  egg  production  of  the  hens 
will  show  with  certainty  when  they  are  in  good  breeding 
condition  again.  The  test  is  the  fertility  of  the  eggs  and 
the  vitality  of  the  chickens  hatched,  and  this  appears  to 
be  associated  with  and  dependent  in  part  upon  conditions 
of  the  nervous  system  and  of  the  reproductive  organs  that 
continue  to  affect  the  breeding  power  of  a  bird  sometimes 
long  after  it  appears  to  ordinary  observation  to  be  in 
perfect  physical  condition. 

Feeding  Bantams 

The  size  of  a  bantam  is  determined  primarily  by 
selection  in  breeding,  but  may  be  influenced  considerably 
by  feeding.  In  nearly  all  bantams  the  object  is  to  have 
the  birds  as  small  as  possible,  yet  with  the  type  of  the 


large  breed  of  which  they  are  miniature  reproductions. 
The  development  of  the  appropriate  type  is  much  influ- 
enced by  conditions.  In  all  but  the  Cochin  and  Brahma 
Bantams  the  best  chickens  are  grown,  and  the  breed  type 
well  preserved  when  the  birds  are  at  liberty  on  a  good 
range,  and  given  no  feed  but  a  little  tine  chick  feed — only 
enough  to  insure  that  they  will  be  well  nourished.  Grow- 
ing the  Asiatic  Bantams  in  this  way  usually  results  in 
making  the  birds  too  slender  in  form,  a  little  too  high  on 
the  legs,  too  long  in  the  neck,  and  too  active  to  show 
good  type.  There  is  also  a  tendency  to  shorter  and  less 
profuse  feathering  when  the  birds  range  much.  The  best 
way  to  grow  this  type  is  in  grass  yards  that  give  'plenty 
of  green  feed  and  animal  feed,  yet  limit  the  ranging  and 
the  activities  of  the  chicks,  and  to  feed  them  about  as 
other  chicks  are  fed,  except  that  only  fine  grains  should 
be  used,  and  comparatively  litf.le  soft  t\e1.  The  fino 
commercial  chick  feeds  generally  are  splendid  feeds  for 
bantams. 

Starving  or  very  short  feeding  to  reduce  size  will 
keep  down  weight  but  is  apt  to  spoil  type  in  any  breed, 
and  certain  to  prevent  the  production  of  the  finest  qual- 
ity in  color  of  plumage.  It  also  greatly  reduces  the  vital- 
ity of  the  birds  and  this,  no  doubt,  is  the  cause  of  ex- 
ceptional delicacy  in  many  stocks  of  bantams.  The  best 
breeders  of  bantam*  now  follow  the  policy  of  feeding  for 
fair  development  of  body  with  good  quality  in  plumage 
color,  and  consider  the  production  of  a  proportion  of 
birds  that  are  overlarge  as  less  objectionable  than  to 
have  all  birds  small  and  all  more  or  less  defective  in 
plumage. 


YOUNG    BIRDS    MAKE    THEIR    BEST    DEVELOPMENT    UNDER    THESE   CONDITIONS 


CHAPTER     X 


Feeding  Turkeys,  Peafowl,  Guineas  and  Pheasants 

Differences  in  Feeding  This  Class  of  Poultry  Due  to  Size,  Habits   of   Life,   and   Susceptibility  to    Unfavorable   Condi- 
tions in   Domestication — Rations   Used   by   Successful   Turkey     Raisers   for    Breeding   Stock    and   for 
Growing   and    Fattening — Feeding   of   Peafowl   Practically  the   Same   as   of   Turkeys — 
Guineas  and  Pheasants  Thrive  on  Common  Poultry  Feeds 


f^T^HE  four  kinds  of  poultry  considered  in  this  chap- 
ter have  much  the  same  general  feed  requirements 
f^~  and  feeding  habits  as  chickens,  but  are  less 
domestic,  more  restive  under  restrictions  upon  their  move- 
ments, and  more  susceptible  to  the  effects  of  contami- 
nated soil  and  polluted  feed  and  drink.  These  character- 
istics make  the  profitable  raising  of  turkeys  and  guineas 
depend  very  much  upon  opportunities  to  give  them  range 
where  they  can  procure  the  greater  part  of  their  feed  by 
foraging,  and  where  they  will  not  be  seriously  molested 
by  their  natural  enemies.  Under  such  conditions  the  feed- 
ing of  the  adult  stock  is  a  comparatively  simple  matter. 
To  start  any  considerable  number  of  young  birds  and 
bring  them  with  slight  losses  to  the  size  at  which  they 
become  safe  from  their  smaller  and  more  numerous  ene- 
mies, however,  requires  keeping  them  under  control  and 
surveillance  while  they  are  small,  and  for  this  reason  they 
generally  have  to  be  kept  near  the  dwelling  of  the  per- 
son having  them  in  charge,  arid  fed  with  more  care  dur- 
ing that  period  than  chickens. 

Peafowl  and  pheasants  are  kept  more  for  ornament, 
and  usually  in  much  smaller  numbers,  and  because  of  the 
greater  rarity  and  value  of  the  stock  the  tendency  is  to 
restrict  them  more.  This  is  likely  to  make  conditions  so 
much  more  unfavorable  than  for  turkeys  and  guineas  that 
in  general  experience  the  peafowl  and  pheasants  seem 
more  delicate  and  difficult  to  raise.  The  almost  universal 
tendency  among  those  growing  any  kind  of  poultry  which 
they  find  rather  delicate  is  to  feed  something  out  of  the 
ordinary — something  supposed  to  be  peculiarly  suited  to 
the  young  of  the  kind  of  stock  handled.  Instead  of  doing 
this  the  novice  in  growing  these  kinds  of  poultry  should 
seek  to  provide  the  best  substitute  practical  for  the  nat- 
ural conditions  most  favorable  to  the  birds,  and  .feed  them 
as  he  would  chickens  under  the  same  circumstances,  mak- 
ing proper  allowance  for  the  size  of  the  birds  in  feeding 
grain.  Young  guineas  are  smaller  and  young  pheasants 
much  smaller  than  average  chickens  at  hatching,  and  they 
need  the  finer  cracked  grains  for  a  longer  period — just  as 
bantams  and  the  smaller  varieties  of  chickens  do. 

A  point  to  be  considered  in  relation  to  the  greater 
susceptibility  of  these  kinds  of  poultry  to  contaminated 
soil,  and  the  possible  occasion  for  careful  dieting  of  birds 
which  are  easily  affected  by  it,  is  that  in  all  somewhat 
rare  kinds  and  varieties  of  poultry,  selection  for  vigor  and 
vitality  is  likely  to  be  much  less  rigid  than  in  the  popu- 
lar and  plentiful  stocks.  The  writer  has  frequently  seen 
turkeys,  guineas,  and  pheasants  doing  as  well  as  chick- 
ens under  conditions  not  desirable  for  poultry  of  any 
kind,  and  with  care  that  was  neither  expert  nor  regular. 
One  brood  of  six  or  eight  guinea  chicks,  in  particular, 
kept  until  about  eight  weeks  old  with  a  common  hen 
mother  in  a  coop  about  three  by  four  feet,  made  of  rather 
wide  boards  with  narrow  cracks  between,  and  after  that 
put  in  a  coop  about  twice  as  large  and  kept  there  until 
winter,  all  lived  and  grew  to  fair  size.  The  coop  first 
used  was  kept  in  a  place  where  the  sun  beat  down  hot 
on  it  nearly  all  day,  and  was  rarely  moved.  My  atten- 
tion was  attracted  to  it  because  in  passing  the  place  A 


number  of  times  in  the  heat  of  the  day  on  some  hot  spring 
days  I  noticed  this  coop,  which  I  supposed  contained 
young  chickens,  standing  where  the  sun  beat  in  on  it 
and  not  a  breath  of  air  was  stirring.  As  I  was  acquainted 
with  the  old  lady  who  occupied  the  house  and  knew  that 
she  was  frequently  away  all  day,  I  finally  stopped  one  ex- 
tremely warm  day  when  the  house  was  closed  to  see  if 
the  chickens  were  suffering  and  if  there  was  any  way  I 
could  give  them  relief.  To  my  surprise,  when  I  came 
close  enough  to  see,  the  young  birds  were  guineas.  Next 
day  I  stopped  to  see  the  lady  and  suggest  that  if  she 
hoped  to  raise  any  of  them,  better  and  more  roomy  ac- 
commodations should  be  provided.  She  assured  me  that 
she  thought  the  birds  would  do  very  well  as  she  had 
some  years  before  raised  some  in  just  such  a  coop.  It 
was  only  after  much  urging  that  she  engaged  a  boy  to 
make  a  coop  with  more  room,  and  adopted  the  plan  of 
moving  the  coop  to  clean  ground  at  long  intervals. 

Guineas  that  will  live  and  grow  as  well  as  those  did 
under  the  circumstances  were  as  immune  to  all  the  dan- 
gers of  such  conditions  as  any  stock  could  be.  Turkeys 
are  often  grown  in  small  numbers  in  confinement,  and 
sometimes  make  good  growth.  Many  growers  of  pheas- 
ants are  as  successful  with  them  as  with  chickens  under 
thf  same  conditions.  It  is  doubtful  whether  there  is  any 
profit  in  stock  so  raised,  "but  the  fact  that  it  can  be  done 
is  of  interest  to  many  persons  who  are  deterred  from 
raising  some  of  the  other  kinds  of  land  birds  used  ac 
poultry  because  they  suppose  that  it  is  useless  to  attempt 
tT  do  so  unless  they  provide  special  feeds  and  give  much 
more  attention  to  feeding  them  than  to  feeding  chickens 
From  such  cases  as  that  cited  it  appears  that  good,  vig- 
oious  stock  is  half  the  battle,  and  that,  if  the  birds  have 


THE    START    IN   THE    SPRING 

Photo    from    Bureau    of    Animal    Industry,    U.    S.    Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture. 

the  vitality  to  start  with,  something  may  be  done  with 
them  under  ordinary  conditions  in  which  chickens  are 
grown,  though  better  results  are  obtained  with  less  effort 
when  turkeys,  peafowls,  guineas,  and  pheasants  are  on 
good  range  not  much  used  by  other  poultry.  The  great 
trouble  in  managing  all  these  birds  is  the  difficulty  of 
keeping  them  in  bounds.  They  are  inclined  to  wander 

95 


96 


HOW  TO  FEED  POULTRY  FOR  ANY  PURPOSE  WITH  PROFIT 


much  farther  than  chickens  and,  as  the  young  birds  can 
fly  out  of  any  uncovered  enclosure  at  an  age  when  chick- 
ens are  restrained  by  low  fences,  the  keeper  has  little 
control  over  them  unless  they  are  in  close  quarters. 

Although  the  feeding  is  so  like  the  feeding  of  fowls 
that  any  poultry  keeper  who  can  grow  good  chickens 
should  be  able  to  adapt  the  rations  used  to  the  other 
kinds  of  domestic  land  birds  with  good  results,  and  easily 
learn  by  observation  what  changes 
might  be  made  in  them  to  advantage, 
a.  few  examples  of  the  rations  for 
each  kind  will  be  helpful  to  most 
readers  and  will  show  the  differences 
in  the  methods  of  giving  similar  ra- 
tions: • 

RATIONS    FOR   TURKEYS 
No.    44 — J.    F".    Crnngle's    Rations 

I— FOR  BREEDING  STOCK— 

Feed  mostly  on  oats  scalded,  give 
corn  about  twice  a  week.  Furni.;h 
charcoal  and  oyster  shell  in  boxes 
from  which  the  birds  can  help 
themselves. 

II— FOR    YOUNG    TURKEYS— 

Four  times  a  day  give  stale  bread 
(from  three  to  ten  days  old)  moist- 
ened with  milk.  In  wet,  cool 
weather  put  a  little  red  pepper  in 
this  feed.  Give  clabbered  milk  to 
drink.  After  about  three  or  four 
weeks,  begin  to  feed  wheat  and 

cracked    corn.       Scalding    the    grain    makes    it    easier    to 
digest.      The    scalded    grain    should    not   be   fed   until    cool. 

Ill— FATTENING   IN  THE   FALL— 

About  October  1st  beg-in  to  feed  twice  a  day  what 
whole  corn  they  will  eat  up  in  a  few  minutes.  The 
birds  will  fatten  better  if  allowed  to  range  than  if 
confined  in  pens. 

No.    45 — Rhode    Island    All-Corn    Ration 

Use  only  northern  white  flint  corn.  Give  this  to  the 
little  ones  coarsely  ground  and  mixed  with  sweet  or  sour 
milk,  or  made  into  bread  and  moistened  with  milk.  GtVe 
this  at  first  four  or  five  times  a  day.  After  a  short  time 
feed  with  it  a  little  dry  cracked  corn,  and  also  substitute 
gradually  for  the  ground  corn,  cracked  corn  soaked  in  milk. 
By  the  time  the  birds  are  eight  weeks  old  they  should  be 
getting  all  cracked  corn  either  dry,  or  partly  moistened 
with  milk.  After  June  1st  birds  on  range  should  need  feed- 


with  boiling  water  and  steam  before  feeding.  Or 
if  it  is  desired  to  use  a  dry  mash  give:  bran  8 
parts,  meat  scrap  1  part. 

II — FOR   YOUNG  TURKEYS — 

1 — One  hard-boiled  egg  for  every  eight  poults  added 
to  stale  (not  sour  or  moldy)  wheat  bread  dipped 
in  milk  and  squeezed  dry.  Feed  for  about  two 
weeks.  The  egg  may  be  alternated  with  cottage 
cheese.  Then  substitute  best  meat  scrap  for  the 
egg,  and  keep  clabbered  milk  before  them. 

2 — One  raw  egg  for  every  eight  poults,  added  to  a 
a  pint  of  bran  and  enough  clabbered  milk  to  mix 


NEARING   THE    FINISH 
Turkeys   being   driven   to    market   in    the    fall. 

rather   dry.     After  two   weeks   gradually   substitute 
chick   feed. 

Ill — FOR    FATTENING — 

1 — Feed    grain — principally    corn — night     and     morning; 

feed  sparingly  for  the  first  ten  days,  then  increase 

gradually  to   all   they  will   eat. 
2 — To   make   plump,   white-meated   turkeys.    Give    equal 

parts  of  ground  oats,  ground  barley,  and  coarse  corn 

meal,    mixed   with    table   scraps,    boiled   carrots,   and 

potatoes,   and   milk. 

3 — Ground  oats  moistened  with  milk,  and  a  little  mut- 
ton fat  added  every  other  day. 

4 — Equal  parts  of  corn  meal  and  ground  barley,  mixed 
with  boiled  potatoes  or  rutabagas. 

The  profit  in  growing  turkeys   for  market   is   almost 


will  eat  three  times  a  day. 

No.      46 — Turkey      Rations      Recommended      By      the      United 
States    Department   of   Agriculture 

I— FOR   BREEDING   STOCK— 

If  the  birds  are  on  range,  a  good  feed  of  grain — pre- 
ferably oats  or  wheat — is  all  that  is  necessary.  In 
winter  feed  twice  a  day  on  equal  parts  of  oats,  wheat, 
and  corn,  with  any  succulent  green  feed.  Supply  ani- 
mal feed  by  giving  meat  scraps,  beef  livers,  and  lungs, 
or  skimmed  milk — sweet  or  sour.  Give  free  access  to 
grit,  shell,  and  charcoal. 

-FOR   YOUNG   TURKEYS- 
1 — Hard-boiled     egg    chopped 


II- 


mg  only   twice   a  day.      Where   the   range   is   good   and    the  entirely    in    the    feed    thev    secure    hv    forao-ino-       Fven    it 
flock  of  only  moderate  numbers,   they  often   need   no   feed- 
ing from  August  1st  until  October.     While  the  range   sup-  the  high  prices  which  turkeys  have  commanded  in  recent 
plies    some   feed   in   the   fall,    the    birds   are   fed    light    feed  -,  i      .  . c   1       i     *i 
of  whole  corn  twice  a  day.     In  November,   to   fatten   fully  years   it   is   douotiui   whether   money   could   be   made   any- 

win  eSt nthrfLVi«meSt^edfltre  where  growing  turkeys   for  the  table  on  purchased   feed, 

or  on  grain  from  the  corncribs  and  granaries  on  farms. 
Some  harvested  feeds  must  be  used  in  starting  the  young 
turkeys,  but  the  quantity  of  these  is  insignificant.  Some 
feed  must  also  be  given  to  finish  for  market,  but  this 
need  not  be  a  large  part  of  what  produced  the  meat.  The 

duu    ^um,    WILII    any    sue  cine  ii  i.    Kreen    ieea.      SUDDIV    am-  i-  r    ii  i  i  r  r 

mal  ^feed  by  giving  meat  scraps,  beef  livers,  and  lungs,       Policy   of   those   who   grow   turkeys    for  profit   must   be   to 

have  them  get  the  most  of  their  living  by  foraging,  and 
this  result  is  secured  by  keeping  the  size  of  the  flock 
down  to  what  the  range  will  carry.  Overstocking  has 

the"firSt"Week>   th6n  whole' wheaf'ind       the    effect    of    either    making    the     turkeys    remain     much 

nearer  the  farm  buildings  where  they  and  other  poultry 
are  fed,  or  causing  them  to  wander  far  in  search  of  feed. 
They  may  hang  around  home  for  a  time,  and  then  take  a 
notion  to  look  up  new  and  better  pastures,  and  they  are 
apt  to  do  this  just  when  the  attendant  has  concluded  that 
they  have  settled  down  to  a  quiet  life,  and  is  proceeding 
with  other  work  on  the  theory  that,  for  the  time,  the  tur- 
keys need  no  watching. 

Several  broods  of  turkey  poults  generally  combine  in 
one  flock  and,  as  turkeys  are  usually  kept,  all  the  birds 
are  likely  to  go  in  one  flock.  But  where  there  is  room 
and  they  are  allowed  to  do  so,  a  stock  will  frequently  re- 
main divided  into  small  groups  all  season,  each  of  these 
following  a  different  route  in  foraging.  It  is  the  natural 
habit  of  a  flock  of  turkeys,  when  foraging,  to  make  a 
circuit  that  will  bring  them  home  toward  evening.  They 


fine      and      corn      bread 
_    the    first   week 
hulled    oats. 

2 — Stale  bread  soaked  in  milk  and  squeezed  dry  for 
the  first  few  days,  then  common  chick  feed. 

3 — Clabbered  milk  seasoned  with  salt  and  pepper,  and 
corn  bread  crumbs. 

4 — Equal    parts     of     pinhead     oats,     whole     wheat,    and 

cracked    corn. 
5 — Cracked  wheat. 
6 — Corn  meal  3  parts  and  wheat  bran  1  part,  mixed  and 

baked   into    bread. 
1 — Bran    or    middlings    2    parts,    cracked    Egyptian    corn 

1    part,   wheat  or   hulled   oats,   or  a  mixture   of   the 

two,    1    part. 

Ill — FOR    FATTENING — 

Feed  wheat  and  oats  twice  a  day  at  the  beginning  of 
the  fattening  period,  gradually  changing  to  corn. 

No.  47 — Washington  Experiment  Station  Rations 

I — BREEDING   STOCK — 

1 — Give  corn,  wheat,  oats,  and  clover  or  alfalfa,  using 
less  corn  than  of  other  grains.  The  following  may 
be  given  as  a  wet  mash:  Corn  meal  1  part  (by 
measure),  bran  2  parts,  chopped  onion,  or  raw 
apples,  or  cooked  mashed  carrots  or  potatoes,  1 
part,  meat  scrap  or  clabbered  milk  1  part;  mix 


FEEDING  TURKEYS,  PEAFOWL,  GUINEAS,  AND  PHEASANTS 


97 


do  not  invariably  make  the  same  round,  but  are  apt  to  GO 
so.  Fences  and  walls  make  no  bar  to  their  progress,  for 
they  go  over  them  easily.  It  is  their  custom  to  make 
stops  in  shady  or  secluded  places  along  their  circuit  to 
rest,  and  anyone  knowing  the  "stations"  on  their  route 
can  tell  very  nearly  the  time  of  day  when  they  will  be 
found  at  each.  In  rainy  weather  which  interferes  with 
foraging  as  they  travel  the  circuit  they  are  apt  to  go 
quickly  from  station  to  station,  but  remain  a  long  time 
at  each,  with  the  result  that  they  get  little  feed.  Careful 
turkey  raisers  make  a  practice  of  looking  up  the  turkeys 
at  their  stations  at  such  times  and  feeding  them  at  these 
places  as  many  times  during  a  bad  day  as  is  necessary 
to  insure  that  they  will  have  all  the  feed  they  need. 

Trouble  is  sometimes  experienced  in  feeding  new 
corn  to  turkeys  when  fattening  them.  It  is  always  better 
to  feed  old  dry  corn  if  it  is  available;  but  if  new  corn 
must  be  used,  it  should  be  fed  light  at  first,  and  the  quan- 
tity increased  as  the  birds  become  accustomed  to  u. 
When  this  is  done  new  corn  may  be  used  with  safety. 

Peafowl  may  be  treated  exactly  as  turkeys  are,  with 
the  difference  that  as  they  are  not  grown  for  the  table 
they  have  no  need  of  fattening  rations,  and  corn  is  not 
as  essential  a  part  of  their  diet.  If  they  are  kept  as  most 
peafowl  are,  in  small  numbers  where  they  can  have  lib- 
erty, they  really  need  no  more  feeding  than  is  necessary 
to  keep  them  from  going  into  yards  occupied  by  other 
poultry,  or  from  mingling  with  the  other  stock.  This 
separation  is  not  for  the  benefit  of  the  peafowls,  but  for 
the  protection  of  the  other  birds. 

Guineas  are  given  practically  the  same  feed  as  tur- 
keys, except  that  corn  is  usually  given  them  cracked  in- 
stead of  whole.  While  they  forage  more  widely  than 
chickens  they  do  not  go  as  far  as  turkeys,  nor  are  they 
as  systematic  in  their  habits.  They  are  apt  to  keep  near 


enough  to  home  to  be  within  hearing  distance  when  the 
fowls  and  chickens  are  fed,  and  to  rush  in  for  their  share, 
even  though  they  have  formed  the  habit  of  roosting  out 
and  are  shy  about  being  handled  in  any  way. 

Guineas  as  marketed  are  usually  in  poor  flesh,  or  at 
best  only  fairly  fleshed,  but  from  lime  to  time  a  few 
nice  fat  guineas  may  be  seen  in  the  markets.  Where  the 
thin  guinea  when  plucked  appears  unattractive,  fat  guineas 
properly  displayed  will  attract  favorable  attention  at  once. 
Whether  it  would  pay  the  grower  of  guineas  to  fatten 
before  marketing  probably  depends  upon  the  circum- 
stances under  which  they  are  grown,  and  the  opportunity 
to  sell  them  at  a  premium  over  ordinary  stock.  The  few 
fat  guineas  that  are  seen  in  the  market  are  probably  birds 
of  unusually  docile  disposition  that  have  been  reared  and 
fed  with  chickens,  or.  birds  that  have  had  some  other  ex- 
ceptionally favorable  conditions  of  growth. 

Pheasants — The  older  authorities  on  pheasant  feeding 
mostly  recommended  the  use  of  "custards",  ant  eggs, 
maggots,  and  other  things  difficult  of  preparation;  and 
also  place  much  emphasis  on  the  feeding  of  a  greater 
variety  of  high-priced  seeds  than  is  put  in  feeds  for  chick- 
ens. The  most  successful  pheasant  growers  in  America 
have  generally  discarded  all  such  special  and  expensive 
feeds  as  not  only  too  costly  and  troublesome,  but  as  actu- 
ally inferior  to  a  good  ration  for  young  chickens  and 
turkeys.  A  thing  to  be  especially  sought  in  handling 
pheasants  is  a  secluded  place  where  they  will  be  safe 
from  things  that  would  frighten  them.  While  some  pheas- 
ants are  tame  and  not  easily  frightened,  the  average 
pheasant  is  more  shy  and  nervous  than  the  most  flighty 
of  our  varieties  of  fowls.  Birds  of  any  kind  that  are 
easily  frightened  and  are  often  frightened  are  never 
thrifty;  the  reaction  of  the  fright  upon  the  digestive  sys- 
tem prevents  proper  digestion  and  assimilation  of  feed. 


BRONZE  TURKEYS  ON  THE  FARM 
Scene  on  Farm  of  Chas.  McClave,  New  London,  Ohio. 


Feeding  and  Fattening  Ducks 

Special  Features  of  Feeding  Practice  Due  to  Aquatic  Habits   of   Ducks   and   to    Their    Remarkable    Adaptability   to 
Forced   Feeding — Rations   Used    By   Pioneer  and      Leading     Commerical     Duck     Growers  —  Rate    of 
Growth   of   Ducks — Feeding   Young   Ducks  Designed    for    Breeders    for    Development 
and  Breeding  Stock  for  Egg  Production 


DUCK  culture  in  America  is  principally  the  grow:ng 
of  ducks  to  be  sold  for  the  table  at  about  ten 
weeks  of  age.  There  are  few  breeders  of  stand- 
ard ducks  for  exhibition.  Perhaps  one  farmer  in  ten 
keeps  a  few  indifferently  bred  ducks  with  other  poultry, 
and  feeds  them  the  same  way,  except  as  the  ducks  make 
their  ration  different  by  the  things  they  get  in  foraging. 
Occasionally  a  poultry  keeper  with  a  preference  for  ducks 
keeps  quite  a  large  flock  of  them  and  sells  the  eggs  for 
table  use.  In  general,  those  who  keep  just  a  few  ducks 
get  poor  results  from  them  because  they  do  not  realize 
that  a  system  of  feeding  which  would  be  ruinous  to  any 
other  kind  of  poultry  is  what  is  required  to  get  the  best 
a  duck  is  capable  of  doing. 

In  all  discussions  of  the  making  and  use  of  moist 
mashes  for  land  birds,  emphasis  is  placed,  over  and  over, 
on  the  importance  of  avoiding  sloppy  feed,  and  the  neces- 
sity for  using  hard  grain  in  larger  proportions  than  the 
soft  feeds  given,  if  the  birds  are  to  be  kept  in  good  physi- 
cal condition  for  any  length  of  time.  In  expert  feeding  of 
ducks,  hard  grain  is  not  used  at  all  for  the  young  birds 
while  growing,  and  the  breeding  stock  is  given  only  a 
light  feed  of  grain  once  a  day.  All  the  rest  of  the  feed 
is  in  the  form  of  mash,  and  the  wet  mash  is  used  almost 
exclusively,  because  the  conditions  under  which  the  birds 
aie  fed  and  the  method  of  feeding  do  not  admit  of  giving 
the  ground  feeds  in  the  dry  state.  Ducks  can  be  raised 
on  dry  feed,  and  will  do  well  with  it,  but — as  they  want 
a  great  deal  of  water  to  wash  a  moist  mash  down  when 
eating  it,  there  is  no  object  in  giving  it  dry. 


Moist  mashes  as  prepared  for  ducks,  are  usually 
mixed  about  as  dry  as  a  moist  mash  can  be,  but  the  ad- 
vantage of  this  is  in  the  handling  of  the  mash  in  distribut- 
ing it,  and  in  the  fact  that  the  feeding  troughs  keep  mucli 
cleaner  if  the  mash  is  so  dry  that  it  will  not  stick  to  them. 
Frequently  poultry  keepers  raising  a  few  ducks  make  the 
mashes  for  them  very  thin  and  sloppy — about  like  the 
feed  used  for  chickens  in  crate  feeding — and  the  ducks 
seem  to  thrive  as  well  on  them  as  on  anything. 

In  feeding  ducks,  water  must  always  be  accessible  to 
them  while  eating,  for  unless  supplied  with  water  to  wash 
down  the  feed  they  eat  only  sparingly — not  enough  for 
good  growth  or  egg  production.  The  feed  trough  and 
the  pail  or  trough  of  water  should  not  be  so  close  to- 
gether that  the  birds  can  easily  reach  from  one  to  the 
other,  as  under  such  conditions  they  slop  badly  and  waste 
a  great  deal  of  feed.  But  if  the  water  is  just  far  enough 
fiom  the  feed  so  that  the  bird  cannot  turn  to  it  with  a 
mouthful  of  feed  and  swill  the -feed  in  the  water  it  will 
partly  swallow  the  feed,  or  swallow  as  much  as  it  can, 
before  going  for  a  drink.  Then  when  it  goes  back  to  the 
feed  the  drip  from  its  bill  falls  near  the  water  vessel  and 
not  in  the  feed  as  it  will  if  the  feed  and  water  are  too 
close  together.  With  small  flocks  of  ducks  the  slopping 
and  waste  from  having  feed  and  water  too  close  together 
are  insignificant,  but  when  there  are  fifty  or  more  duck- 
lings in  a  flock,  or  ten  or  twelve  breeding  ducks,  the  waste 
becomes  important  and  the  work  of  keeping  feed  and 
water  receptacles  and  the  floors  about  them  clean  is 
much  increased. 


SIX    PHOTOGRAPHS    SHOWING    THE     RATE     OF    GROWTH     OP    DUCKLINGS 


98 


FEEDING  AXD  FATTENING  DUCKS 


99 


The  young  ducks  in  brooder  houses  are  usually  given 
water  in  drinking  fountains  of  the  inverted-cup  type.  As 
the%'  grow  larger  the  water  is  put  in  pails  or  troughs  ot 
such  size  and  construction  that  the  birds  can  drink  and 
can  get  their  heads  and  necks  well  into  the  water  but 
cannot  get  into  it  bodily  and  foul  it  with  their  droppings. 
Where  a. few  ducklings  are  raised  with  hens  it  is  best  to 
give  them  water  in  a  pan  that  they  can  get  in,  and  to 
rinse  it  out  and  give  clean  water  with  each  feed.  This 
will  enable  the  little  ducks  to  keep  themselves  free  from 
any  lice  that  may  come  to  them  from  the  hen.  If  the 
ducks  are  fed  indoors  and  this  results  in  too  much  wet- 
ting of  the  floor  or  of  litter  on  it,  the  head  lice — whicii 
are  most  troublesome  when  ducks  are  hatched  and  reared 
with  hens — will  be  kept  off  if  the  water  vessel  is  such 
that  the  duckling  can  get  its  head  well  under  water. 

When  the  breeding  stock  is  confined  to  the  house  i  i 
winter,  special  care  must  be  taken  to  keep  the  ducks  from 


of  determining  in  advance  which  ducks  need  it  and  which 
do  not,  makes  it  the  best  policy  for  the  novice  in  duck 
laising,  or  for  all  who  do  not  observe  symptoms  of  trou- 
ble as  soon  as  they  appear,  to  take  no  chances.  In  exper- 
imenting on  this  point  the  writer  found  that  some  duck- 
lings would  go  off  their  feed  unless  given  sand  at  the  start, 
while  others  seemed  to  have  no  need  of  it,  until  he  tried 
putting  ducklings  out  for  their  first  feed  on  grass  (as  we 
do  goslings).  From  that  time  he  found  no  occasion  to  put 
sand  in  feed  for  young  ducks.  One  of  the  advantages  of 
raising  ducks,  however,  is  that  they  will  do  better  than 
any  other  kind  of  poultry  where  the  natural  conditions 
are  not  good,  and  probably  the  greater  number  of  those 
who  grow  even  a  few  ducks  cannot  start  them  on  gras-\ 
The  effect  of  lack  of  sand  or  grit  in  the  feed  is  to  make 
ducklings  appear  weak  and  listless,  and  indisposed  to 
move  or  take  any  particular  interest  in  anything.  A  little 
feed  containing  coarse  sand  or  fine  grit  will  revive  them 


FEEDING    TIME    AT    ATLANTIC    DUCK    FARM,    SPE'ONK,    L.    I. 


Taking  the  litter  in  a  large  part  of  the  floor  wet  by  their 
dabblings  in  the  water  and  running  about  while  wet.  The 
usual  plan  is  to  have  the  water  pail  in  a  wooden  frame 
about  two  and  a  half  feet  square,  sunk  into  the  floor  un- 
til the  top  is  only  a  little  higher  than  the  iloor.  This  top 
is  of  slats  with  the  edges  up  (strips  of  furring  will  answer) 
and  with  a  space  left  in  the  middle  into  which  the  pail 
will  go  just  deep  enough  to  be  firmly  held  in  place.  The 
floor  under  the  frame  is  dug  out  as  much  as  necessary  to 
drain  away  all  the  water  that  is  slopped  out  and  conies 
through  the  slats.  Where  ducks  have  access  to  running 
or  standing  water  in  their  yards  or  on  range,  it  may  not 
be  necessary  to  provide  water  especially  for  drinking  at 
feeding  time.  That  depends  on  the  amount  and  condition 
of  the  water,  and  its  accessibility. 

In  feeding  young  ducks  in  brooders,  or  ducks  with 
hens,  if  they  have  not  an  opportunity  to  eat  growing  tender 
green  feed  from  the  first,  it  is  important  to  put  a  little 
coarse  sand  or  fine  gitt  in  their  mash.  Some  duck  grow- 
ers put  sand  or  grit  regularly  in  the  mash  for  quite  a 
long  time,  others  use  it  only  for  a  few  days.  It  does  not 
appear  that  there  is  any  advantage  in  continuing  it  longer, 
nor  is  it  necessary  in  all  cases,  though  the  impossibility 


almost  as  soon  as  swallowed  if  given  when  the  symptoms 
are  first  noted. 

Another  important  particular  in  which  ducks  are  un- 
like other  poultry  is  their  ability  to  digest,  assimilate,  and 
thrive  remarkably  upon  rations  having  proportions  of  ani- 
mal matter  that  would  be  highly  injurious  to  chickens, 
turkeys,  or  geese.  Ducklings  can  stand  for  some  time 
meat  scrap  up  to  30  per  cent  or  more  of  their  ration.  It  is 
not  economical  to  feed  it  so  heavily  for  any  considerable 
period,  but  the  ability  of  the  duck  to  use  strong  feed 
makes  it  possible  often  to  force  growth  very  rapidly,  and 
this  is  of  great  advantage  both  in  bringing  on  ducklings 
that  are  a  little  backward  as  they  approach  the  age  for-» 
killing  as  green  ducks,  and  in  forcing  lots  to  get  them  on 
the  market  as  soon  as  possible  when  prices  are  declining. 

While  ducklings  can  use  heavy  rations  containing 
large  amounts  of  animal  feed  to  advantage,  they  need  lib- 
eral supplies  of  green  feed.  In  fact,  the  use  of  large 
amounts  of  animal  feed  is  necessary  and  profitable  only 
when  ducks  are  grown  in  confinement  where  they  obtain 
little  or  nothing  by  foraging.  When  a  few  ducks  are  grown 
on  good  range,  or  are  liberally  supplied  with  green  feed, 
they  will  grow  quite  as  well  as  those  grown  on  heavy 


100 


HOW  TO  FEED  POULTRY  FOR  ANY  PURPOSE  WITH  PROFIT 


meat  rations  under  the  conditions  which  obtain  on  the 
commercial  duck  farm,  though  perhaps  not  quite  as  rapid- 
ly. In  growing  ducks  for  market,  the  profit  is  in  the 
green  duck,  killed  at  from  nine  to  eleven  or  twelve  weeks 
of  age.  In  growing  a  few  ducks  for  the  home  table,  a 
much  meatier  and  larger  duck  can  be  obtained  by  keeping 
them  until  four  or  five  months  old.  But  to  hold  them 
profitably  for  the  longer  period  they  should  be  where 
they  will  pick  much  of  their  living,  or  where  garden 
waste  will  make  an  important  part  of  their  diet.  It  will 
not  pay  to  hold  them  so  long  and  buy  grain  for  them. 
Commercial  duck  growers  also  use  large  proportions  of 
green  feed  in  mashes,  but  rarely  have  enough  of  it  to  re- 
duce appreciably  the  quantity  of  grain  and  meat  needed 
to  grow  their  ducks. 

Large  flocks  of  ducks  kept  for  breeding  can  rarely 
be  given  a  range  that  will  supply  any  appreciable  quan- 
tity of  feed.  Small  flpcks  with  good  range  either  on  grass 


the  ducks  begin  laying-  increase  the  amount  of  meat 
scrap  to  12  or  15  per  cent.  At  noon  feed  a  little  hard 
grain — corn,  wheat,  or  oats,  or  a  mixture  of  those 
grains. 

II— FEED    FOR    YOUNG    DUCKLINGS— 

First  four  days,  wheat  bran.  4  parts;  corn  meal, 
1  part;  low-grade  flour.  1  part;  5  per  cent  of  fine  grit. 
Feed  four  times  a  day,  all  they  will  eat  up  clean. 

After  the  fourth  day,  wheat  bran,  3  parts,  corn 
meal,  1  part;  low-grade  flour,  1  part;  5  per  cent  of 
fine  meat  scraps  and  3  per  cent  of  fine  grit.  Feed  four 
times  a  day.  For  green  feed  give  finely  cut  green 
clover,  rye,  or  cabbage. 

When  the  ducks  are  three  weeks  old  reduce  to  three 
feeds  a  day,  and  make  the  mash  of  equal  parts  of 
corn  meal,  wheat  bran,  and  low-grade  flour,  10  per 
cent  of  meat  scraps,  and  3  per  cent  of  grit. 

From  six  weeks  old  until  the  ducks  are  ready  for 
market  give  the  following:  corn  meal,  2  parts;  bran, 
1  part;  low-grade  flour,  1  part;  10  per  cent  meat  scrap, 
and  3  per  cent  of  grit. 

Xo.    49 — Weber    Bros.'    Method    of    Feeding: 

I— FOR    BREEDING    DUCKS — 

Equal  parts  of  corn  meal  and  shorts,  with  10  per 
cent  of  meat  scrap  added.  If  green  feed  is  not  avail- 
able, add  one-fifth  of  vegetables  to  the  mash.  Give 
raw  vegetables  at  noon  two  or  three  times  a  week. 


*f9 


BROODER  HOUSE  FOR  YOUNG  DUCKLINGS 


or  on  streams  often  pick  the  greater  part  of  their  living. 
The  Indian  Runner  ducks  are  especially  adapted  to  se- 
curing their  living  by  foraging  over  meadows.  The  gen- 
eral tendency  of  foraging  ducks  is  to  work  favorite  local- 
ities quite  thoroughly.  The  Indian  Runner,  as  a  result 
of  living  for  many  generations  under  conditions  that  made 
it  necessary  to  forage  systematically  over  considerable 
areas,  has  the  habit  of  doing  that  established  to  a  degree 
that  enables  it  to  get  more  than  most  ducks  from  the 
range  on  ordinary  meadows. 

The  conditions  in  duck  growing  are  such  that  the 
questions  relating  to  feeding  have  been  most  thoroughly 
worked  out  on  the  commercial  duck  farms.  Comparative- 
ly little  has  been  done  in  this  line  at  agricultural  colleges 
and  experiment  stations,  though  the  determination  of  the 
value  of  feeding  meat  to  ducks  in  much  larger  amounts 
than  had  been  customary  was  made  at  the  Geneva  (N.  Y.) 
Experiment  Station. 

RATIONS  FOR   DUCKS 
Xo.  48 — James   Rankin's   Method   of  Feeding 

I — FEEDING  FOR  BREEDING  DUCKS — 

Equal  parts  of  corn  meal,  wheat  bran,  low-grade 
flour,  about  10  per  cent  of  meat  scrap,  and  about  one- 
fourth  of  the  whole  cooked  vegetables — potatoes,  tur- 
nips, etc.  Feed  this  mixture  mornings  and  evenings, 
a  little  more  than  the  birds  will  eat  up  clean.  After 


From  the  middle  of  November  when  put  into  the 
laying  houses  until  the  middle  of  December,  feed  equal 
parts  of  ground  oats  and  shorts  with  about  5  per  cent 
of  meat  scrap.  Feed  this  morning  and  evening,  and 
give  green  feed  at  noon.  After  the  middle  of  December 
give  a  full  laying  ration  of  equal  parts  of  corn  meal 
and  shorts,  with  about  10  per  cent  meat  scrap  added. 

II — FOR  YOUNG  DUCKS — 

Equal  parts  of  corn  meal,  bran,  low-grade  flour, 
ground  graham  bread,  rolled  oats,  5  per  cent  of  meat 
scrap,  a  little  oyster  shell,  and  fine  grit,  and  a  little 
finely  cut  green  rye.  Feed  five  times  a  day  until  the 
ducks  are  three  weeks  old. 

After  three  weeks:  corn  meal,  2  parts;  bran,  1  part; 
middlings,  1  part;  10  per  cent  of  meat  scrap,  a  little 
oyster  shell  and  finely  cut  green  stuff.  This  is  fed 
until  the  ducks  are  six  or  seven  weeks  old,  when  the 
following  ration  should  be  given:  corn  meal,  3  parts; 
low-grade  flour,  1  part;  meat  scraps,  %  part;  3  per 
cent  of  oyster  shell.  When  green  stuff  is  available  add 

1  part   to   the   mixture. 

Xo.   50 — A.   J.   Hallock's   Method 

I — FOR    BREEDING    DUCKS — 

Corn  meal,  4  parts;  bran,  2  parts;  middlings,  1 
part;  oats,  1  part;  wheat,  1  part;  mixed  moist  with 
about  equal  bulk  of  cut  clover  or  other  green  feed, 

II — FOR    YOUNG    DUCKS — 

First  week:  equal  parts  of  corn  meal,  middlings, 
crackers  or  stale  bread,  and  green  stuff,  with  a  small 
handful  of  sand  to  a  quart  of  feed.  .Occasionally  give 
stale  bread  soaked  in  milk  for  a  change.  Second  week: 
corn  meal,  4  parts;  wheat  bran,  2  parts;  middlings,  2 
parts;  meat  scrap,  1  part;  sand,  about  one-third  the 
quantity  of  green  stuff.  At  about  six  weeks  put  ducks 
in  fattening  pens  and  feed  the  following:  corn  meal, 

2  parts;   bran,   middlings,   and   greens — together — 1   part; 
meat   scrap,   about   12   per  cent. 


FEEDING  AND  FATTENING  DUCKS   I 


101 


SHELTERS  USED  FOR  DUCKS  DURING  THE  LATER  PERIOD  OF  GROWING 


Many  other  rations  might  be  given,  but  they  are  all 
derived  from  and  are  substantially  the  same  as  the  fore- 
going. Mr.  Rankin  was  the  pioneer  of  Pekin  duck  grow- 
ers in  America.  The  father  of  Mr.  Hallock  bred  ducks 
for  the  New  York  market  long  before  the  introduction  of 
the  P.ekin.  Duck  growing  then  was  on  a  small  scale.  Mr. 
A.  J.  Hallock  began  with  Pekins  almost  as  soon  as  Mr. 
Rankin,  and  being  a  young  man  and  more  favorably 
located,  developed  his  business  on  a  much  larger  scale 
and  became  permanently  a  leader  in  the  industry.  The 
Weber  Brothers  began  a  few  years  after  Mr.  Hallock  and, 
being  neighbors  of  Mr.  Rankin,  got  much  of  their  early 
knowledge  of  the  business  from  him.  Nearly  all  the  men 
who  have  made  their  mark  in  the  growing  of  ducks  for 
the  table  learned  their  business  either  on  one  of  these 
farms,  or  from  men  who  were  trained  on  one  of  them. 

It  should  be  understood  that  all  duck  growers — and 
all  expert  poultrymen — vary  their  rations  from  time  to 
time  according  to  the  availability  and  prices  of  different 
feeds.  Corn  meal,  wheat  bran,  middlings,  and  low-grade 
flour  are  staple  mill  stuffs,  supplies  of  which  are  prac- 
tically always  obtainable  at  as  low  prices  as  any  other 
feeds  could  be  bought.  The  practical  duck  grower  uses 
these,  with  meat  scrap  and  green  feed,  and  adds  to  the 
mixture  anything  else  in  the  milled-feed  line  that  he  can 
get  at  a  satisfactory  price.  Duck  growers  generally  use 
low-grade  flour  more  than  poultrymen  who  keep  other 
kinds  of  poultry,  because  it  is  not  practical  to  scald  such 
large  quantities  of  feed  as  they  require,  and  the  low-grade 
flour  is  not  only  the  best  thing  to  give  adhesiveness  to 


the  mash,  but  adds  much  to  its  nutritiousness  and  palat- 
ability.  Finely  ground  crackers  and  bakery  waste  give 
like  results. 

It  will  be  noted  that  some  of  the  duck  rations  pre- 
sent the  unusual  feature  of  hard  grains  mixed  in  the  mash, 
and  that  in  these  cases  there  is  not  given  the  light  feed 
of  grain  at  noon,  which  is  more  common.  Some  poultry 
keepers  who  keep  ducks  for  their  eggs  feed  considerably 
more  unground  grain  but  give  it  mostly  after  soaking  in 
water.  Slightly  sprouted  oats  are  also  a  favorite  feed  for 
ducks.  They  can  use  a  limited  quantity  of  hard  grain 
with  the  mashes  or  soaked  grain  given  them,  but  any  at- 
tempt to  keep  ducks  on  a  ration  with  more  than  one  light 
feed  of  whole  or  cracked  grain  a  day  will  result  in  poor 
growth  or  poor  production. 

The  feeding  of  the  ducks  on  a  large  plant  is  always 
done  as  expeditiously  as  possible.  Everything  is  arranged 
with  a  view  to  quick  work  from  the  moment  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  feed  begins  until  the  last  lot  has  been  fed. 
Every  available  man  takes  a  hand  in  the  work,  for  as  soon 
as  feeding  begins  the  ducks  become  quite  excited,  and  it 
is  always  the  experienced  duck  grower's  policy  to  prevent 
excitement  as  far  as  possible,  since  the  least  excitement 
or  disturbance  that  puts  the  large  flocks  of  ducks  in  mo- 
tion may  result  in  the  maiming  of  some  of  the  ducks  and 
may  unfavorably  affect  the  growth  of  many  that  are  not 
crippled  outright.  The  Pekin  duck  in  particular  is  nerv- 
ous and  timid  and,  growing  at  the  remarkable  rate  that  it 
does,  is  even  weaker  than  other  ducks  on  its  feet.  Hence 
the  grower  takes  every  precaution  not  only  against  fright- 


• 


A     FLOCK    OF    TEX-WEEKS-OLD    DUCKS    READY     FOR    MARKET 


102 


POUI-JTRY  FOR  ANY  PURPOSE  WITH  PROFIT 


ening  the  ducks,  but  against  their  injuring  one  another  in 
their  eagerness  to  get  at  the  feed. 

The  nervousness  of  ducks  is  much  more  in  evidence 
when  they  are  kept  in  yards  without  water  runs  than 
when  they  have  water  for  swimming.  In  the  yards  where 
•only  drinking  water  is  provided,  the  ducks  are  much 
•quieter  and  pay  much  less  attention  to  things  that  dis- 
turb them  if  the  water  supply  is  constant.  This  can  be 
arranged  either  by  having  water  piped  to  all  houses  an  1 
yards,  with  automatic  faucets  at  each  drinking  place,  or 
by  having  faucets  at  different  convenient  points  on  the 
plant  where  by  opening  a  faucet  for  a  definite  short  period 
at  approximate  intervals  the  supply  of  water  in  the  ves- 
sels on  a  long  line  of  pipe  is  replenished. 

When  the  feed  is  distributed  on  a  duck  plant  with 
horse  and  wagon,  it  is  the  usual  practice  to  distribute  it  in 
wooden  pails,  placing  these  conveniently  for  the  feeders 
all  over  the  farm  before  feeding  begins.  The  ducks  do 
not  associate  the  appearance  of  the  horse  and  wagon 
loaded  with  pails  with  the  feeding  and  pay  no  attention 
to  it.  The  feed  having  been  thus  distributed,  at  a  signal 
all  the  feeders  begin  and  put  it  in  the  troughs  as  quickly 
and  as  quietly  as  possible.  In  the  brooder  houses  where 
the  youngest  ducks  are  fed  the  work  is  done  rather  more 
leisurely  and  with  a  little  closer  attention  to  giving  the 
ducks  only  what  they  will  clean  up  promptly.  With  the 
flocks  that  are  older  and  are  not  fed  so  often  it  does  not 
matter  if  a  little  is  left  after  the  first  rush  for  feed.  The 
birds  will  soon  come  back  and  clean  it  up,  and  the  all- 
important  thing  is  that  they  shall  all  have  enough  to  keep 
them  feeling  comfortable  until  the  next  meal. 

On  many  duck  farms  the  feed  is  distributed  from  a 
car  running  on  a  track  built  over  the  fences.  This  can  be 
•done  because  the  fences  need  not  be  over  two  feet  in 
height,  and  are  sometimes  lower  than  that.  When  the 
feed  is  distributed  in  this  way  the  feeder  uses  a  shovel, 
and  as  he  pushes  the  car  ahead  of  him  throws  the  mash 
to  wide  troughs  in  each  pen,  placed  at  the  right  distance 
from  the  track.  In  this  way  the  feeding  can  be  done 
very  rapidly. 

Rate  of  Growth  of  Ducks 

Remarkable  as  is  the  growth  of  an  average  chicken,  it 


FRANCES    ELLEN    WHEELER    FEEDING    A    FLOCK    OF  HER   PEKIN   DUCKS 


is  slow  compared  to  that  of  a  Pekin,  Aylesbury  or  Rouen 
duck.  The  combined  standard  weight  of  a  Pekin  duck  and 
drake  at  maturity  is  just  the  same  as  the  combined  stand- 
ard weight  of  a  Plymouth  Rock  cock  and  hen.  The  duck- 
ling at  hatching  weighs  about  the  same  as  an  average 
Rock  chicken.  At  ten  weeks  old  the  duckling  is  ready  for 
market,  not  as  a  small  broiler,  but  at  a  weight  of  six  to 
seven  pounds.  The  rate  of  growth  for  a  lot  of  Pekin 
ducklings  on  a  New  England  duck  farm  that  were  weighed 
at  intervals  of  two  weeks,  was  as  follows: 

Weight    at    hatching    iy2   ounces 

Weight    at    two    weeks 14        ounces 

Weight    at    four    weeks 2       pounds 

Weight    at    six    weeks 4%    pounds 

Weight    at    eight    weeks 5%   pounds 

Weight    at    ten    weeks 7M>    pounds 

Comparing  these  figures  with  the  data  on  the  rate  of 
growth  of  chickens  given  in  Chapter  VI,  the  reader  will 
see  that  the  average  Pekin  duck  is  heavier  at  ten  weeks 
than  the  average  Plymouth  Rock  cockerel  at  twenty-four, 
and  heavier  at  eight  weeks  than  the  average  Plymouth 
Rock  pullet  at  twenty  weeks.  The  green  duck  when  mar- 
keted in  this  stage  is  quite  fat.  After  about  the  twelfth 
week  the  duck  begins  to  molt  its  "chick  feathers"  and 
grow  its  adult  plumage,  and  if  held  until  the  new  coat  is 
coming  strong  it  is  not  only  hard  to  dress,  but  actually 
loses  weight,  and  cannot  be  again  put  in  marketable  con- 
dition until  after  it  is  full  grown. 

Feeding  Ducklings  for  Stock  Birds 
Commerical  duck  growers  select  their  breeding  birds 
from  their  general  stock  of  young  ducks  when  putting 
them  into  the  fattening  pens.  Up  to  that  time  the  same 
rations  and  conditions  are  suitable  for  all.  As  a  rule,  no 
ducks  for  breeders  are  taken  from  the  earliest  hatches, 
for  these  are  not  likely  to  be  the  best  birds  of  the  season, 
and  they  would  have  to  be  carried  too  long  before  they 
were  needed.  The  common  practice  is  to  select  the  most 
of  the  birds  to  be  kept  for  breeding  from  certain  hatches 
which  are  conspicuously  good,  during  May  or  June.  These 
ducks,  kept  for  stock  purposes,  are  given  the  same  ration 
that  they  had  from  three  to  six  weeks  until  full  grown.  As 
soon  as  possible  after  selection  they  are  put  in  more 
roomy  quarters  than  are  allotted  those  in  preparation  for 

market.  Special  attention  is 
given  to  supplying  them  well 
with  green  feed.  On  the 
farms  that  have  limited 
water  range  the  best  of  this 
is  given  to  the  stock,  old 
and  young,  that  will  be  used 
for  breeding  the  next  season. 
The  object  is  to  secure  the 
full  development  of  bone  and 
muscle,  and  make  birds  of 
full  standard  weight  when 
carrying  a  moderate  amount 
of  fat.  The  duck  in  this 
condition  is  right  for  breed- 
ing, and  also  as  good  as  can 
be  for  exhibition.  The  prac- 
tice of  some  exhibitors  of 
making  ducks  very  fat  before 
showing  them,  giving  them 
extraordinary  weight  and  ap- 
parent size  is  detrimental  to 
the  birds.  It  is  the  ducks 
so  treated  that  shrink  so 
much  in  weight  when  shown. 
A  well-fleshed  specimen  will 
not  make  any  extraordinary 
shrinkage  unless  conditions 
attending  its  exhibition  are 
uncommonly  bad. 


CHAPTER    XII 


Feeding  and  Fattening  Geese 

Influence  of  the   Grazing   Habit  of   Geese  Upon   Feeding  Practice — Starting    the    Goslings    With    Hens    On    Grass — 

Handling   Large   Flocks — Ra  e   of   Growth   of   GoslL-g., — Methods    and    Rations    Used    On    Commercial 

Goose  Fattening  Plants — Relation  of  Feeding  Methods  to  Profits  in  Common  Practice 


NO  one  can  really  appreciate  the  value  of  green 
feed  for  all  kinds  of  poultry  until  he  has  had  a 
little  experience  in  growing  geese — and  has 
grown  good  geese  quickly.  Geese  are  as  fast  growing  as 
ducks,  and  they  can  be  grown  almost  entirely  upon  green 
feed.  They  do  better  with  a  little  grain  feed.  They 
grow  quicker,  larger,  and  carry  a  little  more  fat  as  they 
ai  rive  at  marketable  age  if  they  have  one  or  two  light 
feeds  of  ground  grain  daily;  but  their  prime  need  is  for 
pasture  in  summer,  and  for  liberal  supplies  of  vegetable 
feed  with  a  moderate  grain  ration  in  winter. 

The  novice  in  growing  geese  usually — and  quite  nat- 
uially — supposes  that  the  goslings  should  be  fed  about  the 
same  as  young  ducks.  He  waits  the  conventional  twenty- 
four  to  thirty-six  hours  before  giving  them  anything — to 
insure  that  they  will  not  be  hurt  by  feeding  too  early — 
and  then  feeds  them  a  substantial  meal  of  mash  of  some 
kind.  If  they  do  not  seem  to  feel  right  after  being  filled 
up  with  this,  he  puts  a  1'beral  amount  of  sand  or  grit  in 
their  next  soft  feed.  That  helps,  but  in  general  those 
who  try  to  grow  goslings  with  a  heavy  grain  diet  have 
a  great  deal  of  trouble  with  them  and  lose  many.  If  it 
is  understood  that  the  goose  is  a  GRAZING  BIRD,  and 
that  all  kinds  of  poultry  want  the  vegetable  feed  they 
eat  very  succulent  and  tender,  the  requirements  in  feed- 
ing geese  are  much  more  readily  apprehended.  They 
like  to  have  access  to  the  water,  but  do  not  get  nearly 
as  much  of  their  natural  feed  from  it  as  ducks.  They 
prefer  marshy  land  to  clear  water,  because  it  affords 
them  plenty  of  succulent  grass  and  weeds,  with  enough 
animal  feed  of  various  kinds  to  give  variety  to  the  ration; 
but  the  goslings  can  be  grown  on  dry  pastures  with  only 
water  for  drinking,  if  the  flock  and  the  pasturage  are  so 
managed  that  the  grass  is  never  allowed  to  become  hard 
and  tough. 

Starting  the  Goslings  Right 

Most  goslings  are  hatched  with  hens,  especially  in 
the  early  part  of  the  season  when,  if  the  geese  are  not 
allowed  to  sit,  they  will  lay  many  more  eggs.  The  com- 
mon hen  can  brood  only  about  half-a-dozen  goslings  at 


the  start  and  these  quickly  grow  so  large  that  they  have 
no  further  need  of  her  services.  A  hen  with  a  brood  of 
goslings,  should  have  such  a  shelter  coop  as  would  be 
given  her  with  a  brood  of  chicks;  but  instead  of  such  a 
run  as  is  usually  attached  to  a  coop  for  chickens,  the 
goslings  should  have  a  pen  of  boards  or  of  narrow  poul- 
try netting.  A  board  eight  or  ten  inches  high  will  keep 
them  in.  The  pen  should  be  about  6  ft.  square,  or  as 
much  larger  as  is  convenient,  and  should  be  placed  where 
there  is  a  good  growth  of  short,  tender  grass  and  weed?. 
Where  only  a  few  goslings  are  grown,  it  is  a  good  plan 
to  use  wire  covered  runs  such  as  are  used  for  other 
young  poultry  when  they  must  be  protected  from  cats; 
then  the  goslings  need  not  be  confined  to  the  brood  coop 
at  night  and  can  eat  grass  at  will.  With  large  lots  of 
goslings  this  is  not  practical  because  they  need  protec- 
tion for  so  short  a  time  that  the  cost  of  providing  a  lot 
of  such  runs  and  the  labor  of  putting  them  out  and  put- 
ting them  away  would  be  out  of  all  proportion  to  the 
benefit  of  giving  the  goslings  the  opportunity  to  feed  at 
night  while  small. 

The  hen  with  her  brood  of  goslings  should  be  put 
in  the  coop  with  a  run  or  pen  confining  the  goslings  to  a' 
little  plot  of  grass  near  it,  as  soon  as  the  goslings  are 
dry.  Those  that  hatched  first  will  usually  begin  to  nibble 
the  grass  a  little  as  soon  as  put  out.  The  hen  should 
be  fed  two  or  three  times  a  day  what  mash  she  will  eat 
up  clean  when  the  goslings  are  eating  with  her.  If  there 
is  grass  enough  available  so  that  the  goslings  can  always 
have  all  the  green  feed  they  will  eat  while  growing,  it  is 
best  to  give  the  hen  only  two  feeds  of  mash  a  day,  and 
give  one  feed  of  whole  or  cracked  grain.  The  goslings 
may  have  as  much  of  any  feed  that  is  given  the  hen  as 
they  can  eat  while  she  is  eating  what  she  will  take  read- 
ily at  one  time.  They  like  mash  much  better  than  hard 
grain,  but  will  eat  some  of  the  latter.  If  the  supply  of 
green  feed  is  not  going  to  be  ample,  and  must  be  con- 
served to  make  it  last,  the  hen  and  goslings  should  have 
three  feeds  of  mash  a  day,  for  as  long  as  the  hen  stays 
with  them.  Any  mash  that  is  good  for  the  hen  will  do 


A    FLOCK   OF   WATERFOWL   ON   POULTRY     PLANT     AT     WISCONSIN     UNIVERSITY 


103 


104 


HOW  TO  FEED  POULTRY  FOR  ANY  PURPOSE  WITH  PROFIT 


for  the  goslings,  but  the  feeder  should  use  care  to  feed 
only  what  will  be  eaten  up  at  once,  for  goslings  are  like 
other  creatures  in  their  tendency  to  eat  the  most  of  things 
that  are  easy  to  fill  up  on,  and  if  they  have  mash  lying 
by  them  will  not  eat  so  much  green  feed. 

As  soon  as  the  grass  in  the  enclosure  is  eaten  short, 
or  becomes  soiled  so  that  the  goslings  do  not  care  for  it. 


TOULOUSE     GOSLINGS     THREE     WEEKS     OLD 

the  coop  should  be  moved.  A  coop  6  ft.  square  with  half- 
a-dozen  young  goslings  in  it,  on  average  good  lawn,  will 
need  moving  daily  after  the  second  or  third  day,  and 
soon  will  need  moving  twice  a  day.  Then  a  larger  yard 
should  be  provided.  When  the  goslings  must  be  con- 
fined to  the  brood  coop  at  night,  it  should  be  opened  as 
early  as  possible  in  the  morning,  and  not  closed  until 
the  attendant  is  about  to  retire  for  the  night.  Growing 
them  well  on  mostly  green  feed  is  a  matter  of  giving  them 
opportunity  to  fill  up  with  it  at  frequent  intervals  through 
as  much  as  possible  of  the  twenty-four  hours.  After 
they  are  large  enough  to  have  yards  instead  of  small 
pens  the  method  of  handling  them  varies.  A  few  gos- 
lings may  be  given  the  run  of  a  yard  or  pasture  large 
enough  to  afford  them  feed  until  grown,  but  large  flocks 
are  more  economically  handled  by  confining  them  to  a 
part  of  the  range  until  that  is  eaten  clean. 

Growing  Large  Flocks  of  Geese 

Those  who  specialize  in  growing  geese  plan  to  have 
a  considerable  number  of  hens  hatching  at  the  same 
time.  Then  instead  of  putting  the  goslings  out  in  single 
broods  at  the  start,  they'  either  place  several  hens  in  their 
brood  coops  so  that  while  the  hens  are  confined  to  these 
coops  the  goslings  from  all  will  have  the  same  pen;  or 
they  take  the  hens  away  entirely,  keep  the  goslings  in 
lots  of  two  or  three  dozen  in  pens  on  the  grass  during 
the  day,  and  at  night  put  them  in  coops  or  boxes  in  lots 
of  twelve  or  so,  and  put  these  under  a  shed  or  other  con- 
venient cover.  Many  growers  say  they  would  rather  do 
this  for  the  short  time  it  is  necessary  than  bother  with 
the  hens.  The  goslings  are  fed  several  times  a  day  upon 
such  mashes  as  the  growers  are  using  for  other  poultry 
or  find  convenient.  Where  they  have  plenty  of  clean 
green  feed,  mashes  are  often  used  with  no  apparent  bad 
results  that,  if  given  to  goslings  with  limited  supplies  of 
green  feed,  would  make  them  sick.  In  some  places  where 
geese  are  extensively  grown  on  pasture,  all  kinds  of 
mashes  from  nearly  dry  to  sloppy,  from  heavy  to  light, 
and  from  sweet  to  sour  are  used — some  growers  being 
very  careless  in  the  matter  of  taking  up  remainders  ot 
sloppy  mashes,  yet  in  general  one  grower's  geese  ap- 
pear as  good  as  another's. 

After  a  week  or  ten  days,  according  to  the  weather 
and  the  season,  the  entire  lot  of  goslings  near  the  same 


age  is  put  together  in  a  grass  field  and  a  low  fence  of 
wire  netting  run  across  the  field  to  confine  the  goslings 
to  a  strip  a  few  rods  wide  until  that  has  been  eaten  short. 
Then  another  fence  is  placed  a  few  rods  farther  on,  mak- 
ing a  yard  of  about  equal  width  with  the  first;  when  the 
grass  in  that  is  eaten  off,  the  first  fence  is  put  a  suitable 
distance  beyond  the  second — and  so  on  until  the  goslings 
have  grazed  the  whole  field.  By  that  time  the  grass  on 
the  strip  first  occupied  will  have  grown  again,  and  the 
goslings  are  taken  back  to  it  and  started  over  again.  This 
system,  of  course,  is  applied  with  modifications  to  suit 
different  circumstances.  Early  in  the  season  when  the 
goslings  require  some  shelter  they  may  be  yarded  where 
they  can  be  driven  at  night  to  some  permanently  located 
out-building,  or  suitable  shelters  may  be  given  them  in 
the  fields.  But  after  the  goslings  are  about  three  weeks 
old,  and  the  baby  down  is  replaced  by  the  thicker,  tougher 
coat  of  down  which  is  under  the  feathers  of  the  bird  in 
full  plumage,  it  takes  something  unusual  in  the  way  of 
a  storm  to  drive  a  gosling  under  cover,  nor  do  they  need 
much  shelter  from  the  sun  except  in  very  hot  weather. 

Many  of  the  goslings  grown  in  this  way  get  no  gram 
after  the  first  few  weeks,  and  most  of  those  fed  some 
grain  get  only  enough  to  make  a  good  growth  of  frame. 
The  grain  fed  is  usually  a  mash  or  a  little  scalded  cracked 
corn.  The  goslings  grown  in  this  way  are  not  fit  for 
market,  and  in  general  the  growers  take  no  interest  in 
fattening  them,  preferring  to  take  what  they  can  get  for 
them  in  a  state  to  which  they  can  be  brought  with  little 
cost.  Goslings  that  are  to  be  used  for  stock  birds  are 
usually  fed  the  same  as  the  old  geese  after  they  are  about 
half  grown.  While  this  is  common  practice  and  the  most 
convenient  way  when  small  stocks  are  concerned,  better 
stock  birds  will  be  obtained  if  young  birds  run  by  them- 
selves and  are  given  a  little  more  grain  while  growing. 

Rate  of  Growth  of  Goslings 

Goslings  grow  at  about  the  same  rate  as  ducks;  tint 
is,  the  goslings  of  breeds  of  large  size,  such  as  Toulouse 
Emden,  African,  and  crosses  and  grades  of  these,  will 
usually  weigh  about  double  (rather  more)  as  much  as 


GOSLINGS  IN  THE  ABOVE  PICTURE  AT  9  WEEKS  OLD 

ducklings  of  the  Pekin,  Rouen,  and  Aylesbury  breeds  at 
corresponding  ages.  Mongrel  common  geese,  like  "puil- 
dle  ducks",  grow  more  slowly.  Also,  to  make  full  and 
rapid  growth  on  this  scale  goslings  must  have  a  fair  al- 
lowance of  grain.  The  goslings  that  are  reared  almost 
entirely  on  grass  will  not  do  it  except  where  a  few  are 
grown  together  arid  the  pasture  is  uncommonly  good. 


FEEDING  AND  FATTENING  GEESE 


105 


They  may  have  the  frame  and  muscle,  but  will  not  have 
the  fat  to  bring  them  up  to  full  weight.  And,  as  a  rule, 
they  will  be  from  ten  to  fifteen  per  cent  smaller  than  they 
would  have  been  with  one  or  two  light  feeds  of  mash 
a  day. 

Large    goslings    weigh    about    three    to    three    and   a 
half   ounces   when   hatched.     At   one   month    they    should 


GOSLINGS  GRAZING 

weigh  from  four  to  five  pounds,  and  from  that  time  until 
ten  weeks  old  should  make  a  gain  of  over  one  pound  a 
week — a  little  more  at  first,  gradually  increasing  until  at 
the  last  of  the  period  they  are  putting  on  as  much  as  a 
pound  and  a  half  a  week.  At  this  rate  goslings  weigh 
from  10  to  12  or  13  pounds  (and  occasionally  even  more) 
at  ten  weeks  of  age.  A  gosling  to  be  sold  as  a  green 
goose  is  usually  at  its  best  for  that  purpose  at  ten  to 
eleven  weeks.  Sometimes  they  will  continue  to  grow 
for  a  little  longer,  but  as  they  are  usually  coming  to  this 
age  in  June  and  July,  they  are  more  apt  to  go  back  a 
little  than  to  gain  if  the  weather  becomes  hot.  As  the 
earliest  goslings  bring  the  best  prices,  and  the  tendency 
is  for  the  price  to  run  a  little  lower  as  the  season  passes, 
it  is  nearly  always  the  best  policy  for  the  grower  of  green 
geese  to  sell  them  as  they  are  at  ten  or  eleven  weeks. 
If  held  longer  they  may  not  only  begin  to  go  back  in 
weight,  but  will  certainly  begin  to  molt  their  first  plum- 
age and  grow  their  adult  coat,  and  while  they  continue 
to  increase  some  in  size  while  this  is  going  on,  the  rate 
of  growth  is  not  as  rapid  as  before,  they  are  not  as  fat 
as  it  is  desirable  to  have  them  to  command  the  best 
pi  ices,  and  being  full  of  pinfeathers  they  are  hard  to  p:ck, 
and  do  not  make  as  nice  an  appearance  when  dressed. 

Fattening  Goslings 

Goslings  that  are  grown  to  be  marketed  as  green 
geese  at  ten  to  twelve  weeks  of  age  can  be  made  as  fat 
as  necessary  by  simply  giving  them  all  they  want  of  aa 
ordinary  mash  for  growing  chickens,  for  a  week  or  ten 
days  before  they  are  to  be  sold.  Few  goslings  are  fin- 
ished in  this  way,  because  so  few  of  those  who  grow 
goslings  produce  them  in  any  considerable  numbers,  or 
are  willing  to  give  them  any  extra  care  and  feeding. 
Goose  growing  generally  is  a  matter  of  getting  what  is 
possible  from  a  few  dozen,  or  at  the  most  a  few  hundred 
goslings,  without  expense  for  feed.  The  greater  part  of 
the  goslings  grown  each  year  are  either  sold  to  men  in 
districts,  where  geese  are  grown  on  many  farms,  who 
make  a  business  of  fattening  for  the  market,  or  go  into 
the  markets  of  the 'large  cities  with  the  general  receipts 


of  poultry,  and  there  are  picked  up  in  quantities  by  com- 
mercial fatteners,  or  in  small  lots  by  immigrants  from 
Central  Europe  who  fatten  them  for  their  own  tables. 
The  commercial  fattening  of  geese  is  done  by  substanti- 
ally the  same  methods  as  market  ducks  are  handled  in 
the  last  few  weeks  before  killing.  The  principal  differ- 
ences are  in  the  "conditioning"  of  the  geese  before  the 
beginning  of  heavy  feeding,  and  the  more  exclusive  use 
of  corn  in  fattening.  The  geese  brought  to  a  goose- 
fattening  farm  to  be  finished  for  market,  being  collected 
from  hundreds  of  different  places,  sometimes  transported 
long  distances,  and  mostly  accustomed  to  a  diet  contain- 
ing comparatively  little  grain  in  any  form,  cannot  be  im- 
mediately put  on  a  heavy  fattening  diet.  To  do  so  would 
be  to  spoil  the  digestion  and  make  it  impossible  to  finish 
them  for  market.  Especially  in  fattening  the  earliest 
goslings  in  hot  weather  it  is  necessary  carefully  to  avoid 
anything  that  would  puf  them  "off  their  feed." 

A  goose  farm  that  fattens  through  the  season,  from 
as  early  as  goslings  can  be  secured  for  this  purpose  untU 
the  beginning  of  winter,  is  usually  located  where  ponds 
or  streams  will  afford  the  geese  ample  opportunity  for  ex- 
ercise in  the  water.  When  the  geese  are  first  brought  to 
the  farm  they  are  put  in  yards  that  give  them  access  to 
the  water,  and  fed  rather  sparingly  twice  a  day  a  mash  of 
corn  meal  and  bran  and  middlings,  in  which  the  corn 
meal  is  about  half  of  the  mixture,  and  the  other  half  is 
equal  parts  of  the  other  two  ingredients.  There  is  con- 
siderable diversity  in  practice  in  this  respect  however, 
and  some  fatteners  use  much  larger  proportions  of  corn 
meal  from  the  start. 

Green  feed  is  given  liberally.  As  the  first  geese  do 
not  come  to  the  farm  until  July,  and  as  the  land  on  which 
geese  are  fattened  soon  becomes  quite  fertile,  it  is  an 
easy  matter  to  have  rank  crops  of  oats,  barley,  or  fodder 
corn  growing  at  this  season,  which  will  supply  all-  the 
green  feed  needed  for  some  time.  With  plenty  of  green 
feed,  two  light  feeds  of  grain  a  day,  and  freedom  of  the 
water,  the  geese  are  soon  in  excellent  condition  and  ready 
for  a  heavy  fattening  ration.  They  are  now  taken  from 
the  yards  affording  them  access  to  water  for  swimming, 


GOSLINGS    DRINKING 

leaving  these  for  the  newcomers,  and  are  placed  in  pens 
a  few  rods  wide,  and  either  nearly  square  or  about  twice 
as  long  as  they  are  wide.  The  arrangement  and  size  of 
the  pens  is  determined  mostly  by  the  lay  of  the  land  and 
convenience  in  feeding.  In  these  pens  are  long  troughs 
for  water  and  feed. 


106 


HOW  TO  FEED  POULTRY  FOR  ANY  PURPOSE  WITH  PROFIT 


The  fattening  ration  may  be  much  heavier  than  what 
the  geese  have  previously  received,  containing  a  larger 
proportion  of  corn  meal  with  some  meat  scrap,  or  the 
birds  may  at  first  be  fed  only  more  freely  of  the  lighter 
ration  they  have  had  up  to  this  time,  and  perhaps  given 
three  feeds  of  it  a  day  instead  of  two.  The  composition 
of  the  ration,  the  frequency  of  feeding,  and  the  liberal 


COOK  HOUSE'  AT  AUSTIN'S  GOOSE  FATTENING  FARM, 
MANSFIELD,  MASSACHUSETTS 

or  sparing  use  of  green  feed,  are  all  matters  to  be  de- 
termined in  each  case  by  the  feeder's  judgment  of  what 
the  birds  can  stand,  by  the  importance  of  haste  in  finish- 
ing them,  and  by  the  available  supplies  of  green  feed. 

The  plants  are  not  usually  large,  and  the  profitable- 
ness of  operating  them  depends  much  upon  putting  as 
many  geese  as  possible  through  the  process.  To  insure 
supplies  of  geese  the  fattener  must  contract  ahead  for 
deliveries  at  certain  times,  and  the  earlier  receipts  must 
be  got  out  of  the  way  to  make  room  for  others  as  they 
come  along.  With  each  lot  the  grower  has 'to  consider 
how  to  get  it  ready  for  market  as  quickly  as  possible,  but 
always  with  due  consideration  of  the  fact  that  if  he  over- 
feeds a  lot  in  the  early  stage  of  fattening  it  may  delay 
getting  them  properly  fatted,  and  may  also  bring  hea\y 
losses.  So  he  gives  always  as  heavy  a  ration  as  he  thinks 
the  birds  can  stand  for  the  period  required  to  make  them 
as  fat  as  desired,  and  in  view  of  the  importance  of  green 
feed  in  conditioning  new  lots  as  they  arrive,  and  the  fre- 
quent difficulty  of  securing  full  supplies  for  the  latest 
arrivals,  the  fattener  usually  gives  the  birds  that  are  get- 
ting a  heavy  fattening  ration  as  little  green  feed  as  l;e 
can,  and  not  have  them  break  down.  Sometimes  the  birds 
get  none  for  several  weeks  at  the  finish. 

The  feeding  on  a  goose-fattening  farm  is  usually  go- 
ing on  continuously  from  daybreak  until  after  dark.  Each 
pen  is  fed  only  twice,  or  at  most  three  times  a  day,  and 
as  mixing  and  giving  the  feed  constitute  practically  the 
whole  of  the  day's  routine  for  most  of  the  men  employed 
on  a  large  plant,  the  number  of  men  kept  is  just  enough 
to  do  the  work  by  beginning  the  second  feeding  immedi- 
ately after  the  first  is  completed,  and  the  third  imme- 
diately after  the  second.  This  can  be  done  better  with 
geese  than  with  Pekin  ducks  because  they  are  not  shy, 
nervous,  and  excitable,  and  are  not  so  uneasy  when  oth- 
ers are  being  fed  while  they  wait.  Feeding  in  this  way 
the  goose  fattener  does  not  attempt  to  feed  only  what 
the  birds  will  clean  up  quickly,  but  feeds  liberally,  his 
only  care  being  to  avoid  giving  more  than  will  be  eaten 
within  an  hour  or  two  after  feeding. 


AVERAGE     RATIONS     FOR    GEE*E     AS     USED     BY 
SUCCESSFUL,    GROWERS 

No.   51 — The    Little    Compton    Method 

I— FOR  BREEDING  GEESE — 

Turn  out  on  pasture  from  June  until  fall,  feed  no 
grain  while  grass  is  available,  then  feed  lightly  of  oats 
and  whole  corn.  After  February  1st  give  a  mixture  of 
corn  meal,  shorts,  meat  scrap,  boiled  potatoes,  and 
turnips  in  the  morning;  whole  grain  in  the  afternoon. 

II — FOR  GOSLINGS — 

Pen  the  birds  on  tender  grass  and  feed  a  mash  of 
corn  meal  and  shorts  two  or  three  times  a  day  until 
about  three  weeks  old,  then  put  in  larger  pasture  and 
give  a  light  feed  of  mash  twice  a  day,  with  occasional- 
ly a  little  cracked  corn. 

No.  52 — C.  F.  IN  civilian's  Method 

I — FOR   BREEDING   GEESE — 

They  must  have  a  pasture  where  from  early  spring 
they  will  live  almost  exclusively  on  grass,  clover,  and 
green  rye.  Place  some  oats  and  barley  in  boxes  about 
eight  inches  square,  where  the  geese  can  get  to  them 
in  the  pastures,  but  away  from  other  poultry.  Give 
corn  only  in  the  coldest  weather,  or  when  there  is  snow 
on  the  ground,  preventing  the  geese  from  foraging. 

IL— FOR   GOSLINGS— 

The  first  two  or  three  days  keep  them  in  a  wan 
place  and  give  them  only  soaked  bread  and  water.  In 
nice  weather  put  them  on  grass  in  small  enclosures 
that  can  be  moved  every  day.  After  a  week  let  them 
run.  The  first  four  or  five  weeks  give  nothing  but  an 
occasional  feed  of  stale  bread.  Do  not  soak  this  after 
the  first  few  days,  as  they  like  it  better  dry,  if  they 
have  plenty  of  green  feed.  After  five  weeks  give  a 
mash  of  2  parts  of  bran  and  1  part  of  corn  meal  in- 
stead of  the  bread. 

HI — TO    FATTEN    GOSLINGS — 

After  six  weeks  feed  corn  meal  and  bran,  equal 
parts,  in  a  moist  (but  not  sloppy)  mash. 

No.  53 — W.  H.  Rudd's   Method 

I — FOR    BREEDING   GEESE — 

Adult  geese  should  be  turned  out  to  pasture  the 
same  as  cattle,  and  should  obtain  their  own  living 
about  six  months  in  the  year.  Through  the  early  lay- 
ing and  breeding  season  they  should  be  fed  twice  a  day 
with  shorts  (bran  and  middlings)  and  corn  meal,  equal 
parts,  moistened  with  water.  If  stale  bread  can  be 
had  at  reasonable  prices,  soak  it  and  use  instead  of 
shorts.  Add  10  per  cent  of  meat  scrap,  or  its  equiva- 
lent of  other  animal  feed.  Supply  shell  liberally. 

U_FOR    GOSLINGS— 

Feed  at  first  a  mash  of  1  part  of  corn  meal  and 
2  parts  of  shorts,  wet  cold  and  squeezed  as  dry  as  pos- 
sible. Give  a  little  every  few  hours — as  often  as  they 
appear  hungry.  As  soon  as  the  grass  begins  to  grow 
put  them  in  movable  pens  on  the  grass.  When  three 
or  four  weeks  old,  turn  them  out  to  pasture.  The  en- 
closure may  be  of  any  size,  but  should  be  so  fenced 
that  they  cannot  wander  from  it.  With  good  pasture 
the  mash  may  be  3  parts  of  shorts  and  1  part  of  corn 
meal.  Feed  this  twice  a  day — only  as  much  as  they 
will  eat  up  clean.  The  drinking  vessels  should  never 
be  empty.  . 

IH_FOR    FATTENING   GOSLINGS— 

Confine  them  more  closely  and  feed  less  shorts  and 
more  meal,  adding  some  meat  scrap;  gradually  in- 
crease the  proportion  of  meal  and  meat  scrap  until  the 
feed  is  about  90  per  cent  corn  meal  and  10  per  cent 
meat  scrap. 


FEEDING   MONGREL   GEESE   AT   AUSTIN'S   FARM 

Relation    of    Feeding    Methods   to    Profit 
Throughout    this    chapter   the    greatest    emphasis    his 
been   put   on   the   liberal   use   of   green   feed,   because    the 
profit   in    growing   geese — and    the    pleasure    as    well — de- 


FEEDING  AND  FATTENING  GEESE 


107 


pends  upon  keeping  them  under  such  conditions  that  they 
secure  the  greater  part  of  the  feed  they  require  by  graz- 
ing. It  is  possible  to  grow  geese  on  heavy  grain  rationj. 
The  risks  and  losses  are  greater  and  the  cost  usually  too 
great,  but  it  can  be  done;  and  there  is  little  doubt  that 
if  it  were  profitable  to  grow  geese  on  grain  as  ducks  are 
grown,  strains  of  geese  could  be  developed  by  selection, 
generation  after  generation,  of  individuals  that  did  be.^t 
on  such  a  diet.  But  the  general  run  of  geese  are  not 
adapted  to  heavy  grain  feeding,  and  it  will  usually  be 
found  that  when  they  are  so  fed — even  on  a  well- 
made  mash,  considerable  quantities  of  it  pass  through 
them  undigested.  This  will  be  the  case  even  with  thrifty 
birds  that  are  making  normal  growth.  Obviously  they 
get  all  they  need  from  the  grain,  provided  they  get  i; 
often  enough,  but  their  digestive  organs  appear  to  carry 
grain  feed  through  the  system  too  rapidly  to  admit  or 
complete  digestion. 

The  goose  normally  is  not  an  efficient  digester  of 
grain.  Its  digestive  system  is  adapted  to  the  quick  hand- 
ling of  bulky,  easily  digested  material.  Except  when  ra- 
tions with  too  much  corn  meal  are  given  to  goslings  it 
the  start,  it  takes  a  great  deal  of  abuse  of  the  digestive 
system  of  a  goose  by  heavy  grain  feeding  to  damage  it 
seriously,  for  the  goose  has  a  rugged  constitution,  ami 
the  digestive  organs  apparently  have  more  power  than 
those  of  other  poultry  to  discharge  nutritious  matter  in 
excess  of  immediate  requirements.  The  goose  is  not 
quickly  cloyed  by  overfeeding,  and  if  it  is  allowed  to 
do  so  will  eat  much  more  grain  than  it  requires  and  can 
use  to  advantage.  For  that  reason  goose  growers  who 
put  their  breeding  geese  out  in  pastures  and  keep  a  little 
grain  by  them,  give  oats  and  barley  which  are  the  least 


attractive    grains. 

Young  geese  penned  on  grass  that  affords  them  less 
green  feed  than  they  could  use  to  advantage  and  are 
fed  grain  to  make  up  the  deficiency  will  almost  always 
eat  much  more  grain  than  it  is  economy  to  give  them,  if 
they  are  allowed  to  do  so.  To  feed  grain  lightly  in  order 
to  correct  this  does  not  answer  the  purpose,  for  the  pro- 
portion digested  is  apparently  about  the  same  whether 
much  or  little  is  eaten  at  one  time.  It  should  be  rec- 
ognized that  the  average  goose  is  only  going  to  get  a 
part  of  the  nutriment  in  grain  fed  it — apparently  as  much 
as  it  can  get  from  grain  in  the  time  it  would  take  to 
digest  tender  vegetation.  So  while  a  little  grain  is  at 
times  beneficial,  supplementing  the  green  feed  and  giv- 
ing better  growth  and  better  egg  production,  it  really 
pays  to  feed  grain  only  for  what  it  will  do  over  and 
above  what  can  be  done  with  all  the  green  feed  the  birds 
can  eat — that  is,  when  the  geese  are  grown  for  the  table. 
In  growing  extra-large  geese  for  exhibition,  grain  is  fed 
more  freely,  for  here  the  idea  is  to  get  the  greatest  pos- 
sible growth  regardless  of  cost. 

The  problem  of  supplying  succulent  feed  to  geese  on 
limited  areas  becomes  quite  troublesome  sometimes  when 
more  than  two  or  three  are  kept,  for  it  takes  a  lot  of 
green  feed  to  make  a  pound  of  goose.  The  birds  are 
not  fussy  about  what  they  eat  and,  while  we  think  of 
grass  as  the  principal  feed  to  be  obtained  from  pasture, 
geese  really  prefer  many  of  the  common  weeds  to  grass. 
They  are  particularly  fond  of  dandelions  and  other  low- 
growing  plants  that  come  in  grass,  and  where  geese  have 
access  to  grass  land  year  after  year  in  sufficient  num- 
bers, they  will  exterminate  such  weeds,  while  the  grass 
will  improve  as  long  as  it  is  not  eaten  down  too  close. 


CHAPTER    XIII 


Growing  Feed  for  Poultry 


At  Present  Prices  the  Collectible  Manure  Made  by  a  Single  Medium-Sized    Fowl  is  Worth  Fully  Fifty  Cents  a  Year 
— The  Poultry  Keeper  Should  Always  Plan  to  Have   Enough   Ground   Under   Cultivation   to   Utilize 
This  Valuable  Fertilizer — Green  Feed  for  the  Fowls  Should  Be  Provided,  if  Nothing 
Else — What  Crops  to  Plant  and  How  to  Grow  Them  Successfully 


A  BACK- YARD  poultry  keeper  whose  small  flocic 
occupies  all  the  land  he  can  use  for  poultry  or 
planting  is  not  interested  in  the  question  of 
growing  feed  for  poultry;  but  to  every  poultry  keeper  who 
has  more  land  than  that  the  question  is  one  of  great  im- 
portance. It  is  not  merely  a  question  of  supplying  feed 
for  the  birds — though  that  is  a  consideration.  The  root 
of  the  matter  lies  deeper.  The  droppings  of  poultry  are  a 
valuable  fertilizer  for  plant  growth,  but  under  some  con- 
ditions become  noxious  poison  to  poultry.  Everyone  who 
keeps  fowls  has  to  consider  how  to  dispose  of  the  drop- 
pings to  the  best  advantage. 

Many  poultry  keepers — far  too  many — are  accustomed 
to  treating  the  droppings  as  so  much  worthless  refuse  that 
must  be  go*  rid  of  with  the  least  possible  trouble  and  ex- 
pense. Amazing  as  it  may  seem  to  those  who  know  some- 
thing of  the  fertilizing  value  of  poultry  manure,  in  dis- 
tricts where  there  is  much  intensive  poultry  keeping 
enormous  quantities  of  hen  manure  are  annually  buried 
in  public  dumps  with  ashes  and  all  kinds  of  refuse,  or 
piled  up  in  out-of-the-way  spots  on  poultry  farms,  or  per- 
haps used  for  grading  and  filling. 

A  part  of  this  waste  has  sometimes  seemed  unavoid- 
able. For  instance,  the  land  occupied  by  a  certain  mar- 
ket poultry  plant  upon  which  large  stock  of  chickens  had 
been  grown  for  many  years  eventually  became  so  satu- 
rated with  poultry  manure  that  the  birds  did  not  thrive 
on  it.  Other  farms  in  the  vicinity  were  in  much  the  same 
state.  The  district  was  devoted  to  poultry  to  the  exclu- 
sion of  most  other  lines  of  agriculture;  the  people  were 
poultrymen,  but  not  farmers.  There  was  no  outlet  for 
a  surplus  of  manure  within  any  convenient  hauling  dis- 
tance, and  hundreds  of  tons  were  dumped  in  a  swamp  ar 
the  rear  of  this  farm,  while  in  another  part  of  the  same 
state  an  isolated  large  poultry  plant,  in  a  general  farm- 
ing community,  was  getting  $10.00  a  ton,  at  the  plant,  for 
all  the  poultry  manure  saved  from  the  droppings  boards, 
and  trading  off  the  droppings  mixed  with  litter  for  new 
straw  litter,  load  for  load. 

There  was  a  time,  when  there  was  not  so  much  poul- 
try kept  and  when  poultry  and  pigeon  manures  were  ex- 
tensively used  in  tanning  leather,  when  the  clear  manure 
was  always  salable  at  prices  which  realized  as  much  as 
its  fertilizer  value.  But  that  time  passed  nearly  a  quar- 
ter of  a  century  ago.  Since  then  there  has  been  only  a 
limited  demand  for  poultry  manure  for  other  than  ferti- 
lizing purposes,  and  this  has  been  so  irregular,  and  con- 
fined to  so  few  localities  that  not  one  poultry  keeper  in  a 
hundred  could  benefit  by  it.  Getting  value  for  poultry 
manure  since  the  large  demand  for  it  for  tanning  purposes 
ceased  has  been  a  matter  of  using  it  to  produce  feed  for 
poultry.  Occasionally  one  might  sell  or  trade  it  to  ad- 
vantage, but  in  general  what  the  poultryman  got  from 
the  manure  was  what  he  could  get  by  using  it  himself. 

A  medium  to  small-sized  fowl  (the  kind  most  common 
throughout  the  country)  makes  from  \y2  to  2  bushels  of 
manure  a  year.  About  half  of  this  is  always  collectible. 
When  hens  are  kept  in  small  yards,  or  confined  entirely 
to  the  house,  it  is  practically  all  collectible,  though  the 

108 


part  not  left  on  the  droppings  boards  is  usually  much 
mixed  with  earth  and  litter,  and  its  value  further  reduced 
by  exposure  to  the  air,  sun,  and  rain.  Making  due  allow- 
ance for  some  unavoidable  waste,  there  is  still  the  possi- 
bility of  securing  and  using  approximately  three-fourths 
of  the  value  of  the  fresh  manure.  This  means  that  from 
a  flock  of  ten  birds  about  one-third  of  a  ton  of  manure 
can  be  collected  in  a  year.  At  the  present  time  this  should 
be  worth  at  least  five  dollars,  or  fifty  cents  per  bird. 

To  lose  this  value  is  not  a  serious  thing  to  the  owner 
of  ten  birds,  but  if  the  owner  of  a  hundred  birds  loses  in 
the  same  proportion  it  is  fifty  dollars,  and  if  the  owner 
of  a  flock  of  a  thousand  birds  fails  to  realize  the  value  in 
their  manure,  it  means  at  least  FIVE  HUNDRED  DOL- 
LARS taken  from  his  annual  income.  No  one  can  afford 
to  lose  this.  A  poultry  keeper  who  has  more  than  a  little 
back-yard  flock  ought  always  to  have  land  enough  to 
utilize  all  the  manure  his  poultry  make.  It  is  a  point 
of  good  management  to  adjust  the  amount  of  poultry  kept 
to  the  land  in  this  way. 

In  the  smallest  yards  where  poultry  are  kept  and 
some  feed  grown  for  them,  the  feed  should — as  a  rule — 
be  some  rank  growing  crop  that  rapidly  utilizes  the  ferti- 
lizing elements  in  the  manure.  Rape  is  one  of  the  best 
plants  for  small  spaces,  as  it  can  be  sown  broadcast  to 
occupy  the  ground  fully,  and  by  cutting  the  tops  at  in- 
tervals and  feeding  to  the  poultry  it  will  continue  growing, 
furnishing  a  regular  supply  of  green  feed,  and  taking  up 
the  manurial  matter  in  the  soil  through  the  entire  season. 
In  planting  and  using  rape  in  this  way  particular  attention 
should  be  given  to  the  physical  condition  of  the  land  be- 
fore the  seed  is  put  in.  The  common  tendency  of  amateur 
gardeners  is  to  rush  the  preparation  of  the  land  to  get 
the  seed  in  as  quickly  as  possible.  The  experienced  gar- 
dener does  not  put  seed  in  the  ground  until  it  is  properly 
and  thoroughly  fitted — forked  or  spaded  as  deep  as  the 
character  of  the  soil  will  permit,  well  pulverized,  and 
made  smooth  on  the  surface. 

If  this  is  not  done,  the  soil  but  slightly  stirred,  left 
lumpy,  and  with  the  manure  that  had  accumulated  at  or 
near  the  surface  imperfectly  mixed  with  the  soil,  the  con- 
ditions of  good  growth  are  not  realized,  and  the  vegeta- 
ble crop  cannot  do  the  service  expected  of  it  as  quickly 
or  as  well  as  when  the  land  is  thoroughly  fitted.  Land 
that  has  not  been  cultivated  for  one  or  more  seasons 
'should  be  thoroughly  worked  over  twice  before  seeding. 
Nothing  that  can  be  done  to  it  pays  better  than  the  second 
spading.  On  plots  that  are  large  enough  to  warrant  using 
hand  plows,  deep  tillage  and  thorough  preparation  are 
secured  by  running  each  furrow  twice — making  a  furrow 
and  then  coming  back  in  it. 

Where  there  is  more  land  available,  a  succession  of 
crops  that  can  be  cultivated  as  they  grow  may  be  planted. 
If  the  idea  is  to  produce  feed  for  poultry  only,  rape,  chard, 
lettuce,  cabbage,  and  mangel  wurzel  beets  are  the  most 
satisfactory  crops.  In  most  cases  it  is  desirable  to  grow 
some  vegetables  for  the  table  as  well  as  for  the  poultry, 
and  where  one  or  two  pens  of  fowls  are  kept  on  an  ordi- 
nary town  lot  there  usually  is  land  enough  available  for 


GROWING  FEED  FOR  POULTRY 


109 


planting  to  furnish  all  the  vegetable  feed  the  birds  re- 
quire, and  a  considerable  amount  of  vegetables  for  the 
family  table.  It  is  simply  a  matter  of  intensive  cultivation 
and  good  management. 

In  growing  a  variety  of  vegetables  for  poultry  or 
for  the  family  and  the  poultry,  the  aim  should  be  to  ad- 
just everything  to  the  principal  crop  or  crops  grown.  For 
instance,  if  it  is  desired  to  have  a  supply  of  cabbage  or 
mangels  for  the  fowls  for  winter,  as  well  as  green  feed 
of  some  kind  through  the  summer,  the  winter  supply 
should  be  considered  the  main  thing  and  all  plantings 
made  accordingly.  Cabbages  for  winter  are  usually  set 
in  July  in  the  northern  states,  so  a  good  crop  of  rape, 
chard,  or  lettuce  may  be  taken  from  the  same  land  before 
the  cabbages  are  set  out.  Turnips  are  less  desirable  for 
poultry  than  the  other  vegetables  mentioned  because,  as 
commonly  grown,  they  often  have  a  bitter  flavor  which 
is  communicated  to  the  eggs  of  fowls  that  eat  them,  and 
tven  when  free  from  this,  turnips  that  are  only  very 
slightly  decayed  and  are  eaten  read- 
ily by  poultry,  may  have  a  rank  odor 
and  give  a  disagreeable  taste  to  the 
flesh  or  eggs  of  birds  eating  them. 
With  these  risks  in  the  use  of  raw 
turnips  it  remains  true  that  a  crop 
can  be  started  and  matured  later  in 
the  season  than  any  other  vegetable 
that  will  make  winter  feed,  and  that 
•with  care  in  feeding — and  by  cooking 
them  if  that  is  found  necessary — tur- 
nips may  be  freely  fed  to  poultry. 
The  writer  has  known  of  their  be- 
ing fed  as  freely  as  mangels  to  large 
stocks  of  laying  hens  without  affect- 
ing the  flavor  of  the  eggs. 

In  considering  vegetable  crops  for 
poultry  it  should  be  observed  that 
cabbages  and  the  root  crops  occupy 
slightly  different  positions  in  the 
diet.  Cabbage  is  both  a  green  and 
a  succulent  feed.  Except  for  the 
"bleached  inner  leaves  of  the  matured 

head,  and  for  other  parts  after  long  storage,  cabbages 
supply  considerable  of  the  material  that  gives  color  to 
egg  yolks.  Mangels  apparently  supply  none  of  this. 
Yellow  turnips  may  supply  it,  but  observations  on  their 
use  do  not  afford  results  warranting  the  statement  that 
they  materially  affect  yolk  color.  Cabbage  as  fed  in 
winter  does  not  give  rich  color  to  yolks  but  does  relieve 
the  extreme  paleness  that  occurs  when  the  diet  contains 
little  yellow  corn,  green-cured  clover  or  alfalfa,  or  green 
sprouted  oats.  Hence  a  supply  of  cabbage  may  be  con- 


nary  testing  may  be  of  some  service,  the  difficulty  is  of 
such  a  nature  that  only  results  at  actual  time  of  planting 
prove  the  quality  of  the  seed  as  used. 

The  difficulty  of  getting  good  stands  of  mangels  haa 
long  been  commonly  explained  on  the  theory  that  the 
seeds  generally  were  low  in  vitality.  On  this  supposi- 
tion the  best  time  to  sow  mangel  seed  is  after  settled 
warm  weather  comes.  Authorities  taking  this  view  have 
been  accustomed  to  recommend  rather  late  sowing.  The 
best  crops  of  mangels  the  writer  has  seen  in  late  years 
have  been  from  early  sowings.  The  poultrymen  most 
regularly  successful  with  them  say  that  the  best  practice 
is  to  sow  mangels  as  early  as  the  ground  can  be  properly 
worked;  that  if  the  seed  is  good  it  will  germinate  then  as 
well  as  at  any  time,  the  crop  will  start  well  ahead  of 
the  weeds,  will  have  a  long  growing  season,  and  produce 
enormously;  that  if  the  seed  is  not  good,  another  supply 
can  be  secured  and  the  crop  resown  as  soon  as  that  fact 
is  ascertained;  that  by  this  course  there  is  an  oppor- 


KEEP    SOMETHING    GROWING    IN    THE    POULTRY    RUNS 
WHENEVER   POSSIBLE 

Growing  crops  in  the  runs  use  up  fertility  that  otherwise  would  be  wasted, 
supply  some  green  feed  for  the  fowls,  and  afford  grateful  shade.  Illustration 
shows  oats  growing  in  runs  at  Maryland  Experiment  Station. 

tunity  to  replant  several  times  if  necessary  before  the 
time  mostly  recommended  for  this  vegetable,  and  that 
the  earlier  a  stand  is  established,  the  heavier  will  be 
the  yield. 

Poor  germination  seems  to  affect  the  larger  varieties 
of  beets  most.  For  that  reason,  people  who  have  had 
much  trouble  in  getting  good  stands  of  the  largest  varie- 
ties often  become  discouraged  and  put  in  the  smaller 
kinds  of  stock  beets.  That  this  is  really  their  advan- 
tage may  be  doubted,  for  the  roots  of  the  "mammoth" 


sidered  as   in   part  substituting  for  other  common  green       varieties  grow  so  much  larger  than  the  others  that  often 


feeds,  and  at  the  same  time  supplying  succulence,  while 
the  root  crops  supply  only  succulence  and  such  nutriment 
as  is  contained  in  their  solids. 

Growing  Mangels 

The  greatest  obstacle  to  the  growing  of  mangels  is 
the  uncertainty  of  germination  of  the  seed,  and  the  con- 
sequent difficulty  of  getting  a  good  stand  started  early 
in  the  season.  Unsatisfactory  results  from  mangel  seed 
are  said  by  some  seedsmen  to  be  due  to  exposure  of  the 
seeds  in  storage  or  in  stock  to  conditions  under  which 
the  germs  start  and  then  die.  It  is  said  that  a  degree  of 
moisture  not  detrimental  to  other  seeds  will  often  pro- 
duce this  result.  The  only  way  of  determining  the  germi- 
nating quality  of  the  seeds  is  by  testing.  While  prelimi- 


what  looks  like  a  very  poor  stand  of  the  big  ones  yields 
much  more  than  a  good  stand  of  the  smaller  varieties,  on 
a  like  area  of  the  same  land. 

Mangels  can  be  grown  well  on  any  friable  soil  that 
keeps  Reasonably  moist  through  the  season.  The  land 
should  be  ploughed  deep,  worked  thoroughly  fine,  and 
put  in  the  best  possible  physical  condition  before  sowing 
the  seed.  Some  of  the  most  regularly  successful  grow- 
ers of  mangels  say  their  practice  is  to  harrow  and  smooth 
the  land  until  it  is  as  good  as  they  would  want  it  for 
ordinary  garden,  and  then  go  over  it  several  times  more. 
They  say  that  such  extra  work  greatly  benefits  the  plants 
at  the  start,  and  its  influence  continues  through  the  whole 
growing  season.  With  thorough  cultivation,  both  before 


110 


HOW  TO  FEED  POULTRY  FOR  ANY  PURPOSE  WITH  PROFIT 


sowing  and  as  necessary  afterward  to  keep  the  soil  loose 
and  the  weeds  down,  mangels  appreciate  liberal  applica- 
tion of  manure.  How  freely  poultry  manure  may  be 
used  for  them  depends  upon  the  soil  and  whether  it  con- 
tains enough  moisture  to  make  such  strong  manure  avai:- 
able  for  the  plants  without  burning  them  in  the  early 
stages  of  growth.  Generally  it  is  not  wise  to  use  hen 
manure  heavily  for  mangels  on  land  that  will  not  dry  out 
quickly  in  case  of  a  spring  drought.  On  such  lands  it  is 
better  to  use  ordinary  barnyard  manure.  Where,  however, 
there  is  moisture  enough  to  insure  that  the  plants  will 
not  burn,  hen  manure  can  be  used  very  liberally,  especi- 
ally if  applied  before  ploughing  and  thoroughly  worked 
in  by  harrowing. 

Where  the  growing  crop  is  to  be  cultivated  by  man 
power  mangels  should  be  sown  in  rows  two  feet  apart, 
and  when  up  well  should  be  thinned  to  about  10  or  12 


A  FIELD   OF  MANGET^WURZELS   GROWING   FOR   WINTER   GREEN   FEED 


inches  apart  in  the  rows.  If  young  beets  can  be  used 
either  for  poultry  or  other  stock  it  may  be  a  good  plan 
to  thin  to  5  or  6  inches  apart  the  first  time,  then  before 
the  beets  at  this  distance  are  crowding  so  that  growth  is 
reduced  take  out  the  intermediate  ones.  Many  growers 
prefer  to  make  one  job  of  the  thinning,  considering  the 
value  of  the  small  beets  for  use  in  summer  not  great 
enough  to  offset  the  check  to  those  left  through  the  sea- 
son, if  through  press  of  other  work  they  should  fail  to 
make  the  second  thinning  at  the  right  time. 

Where  cultivation  is  with  horse  implements  the  rows 
of  beets  should  be  three  to  four  feet  apart,  and  the  plants 
thinned  to  12  to.  15  inches  apart  in  the  row.  Where  the 
land  is  strong  and  capable  of  producing  very  large  beets 
it  will  be  found  an  advantage  to  give  the  plants  plenty  of 
room.  Generally  mangels  do  best  with  level  cultivation, 
but  on  land  that  is  a  little  wet  early  in  the  season  it  is 
sometimes  a  good  plan  to  ridge  the  land  slightly  before 
planting,  and  sow  the  rows  of  beets  on  the  ridges.  This 
gives  a  little  better  conditions  for  the  plants  at  the  start 
and  the  ridges  work  down  when  the  cultivator  is  run 
through  them. 

Growing  Cabbage 

While  it  is  principally  late  cabbage,  for  winter  use, 
that  is  grown  for  poultry,  a  supply  of  early  and  second- 
early  cabbage  to  be  taken  from  the  ground  as  needed, 
often  comes  in  handy  for  extra  green  feed  in  summer. 
In  gardens  worked  with  hand  and  small  wheel  hoes  it  is 


often  practical  to  grow  a  considerable  number  of  heads 
of  early  cabbage  between  the  rows  of  crops  of  various 
kinds  that  do  not  at  this  season  require  the  room  they 
will  need  later.  In  such  places  cabbage  plants  may  be 
set  at  the  necessary  distances  to  allow  them  to  head  prop- 
erly— 18  to  20  inches  is  right  for  most  of  the  early  varie- 
ties— or  cabbage  seed  may  be  sown  in  a  solid  row,  as 
when  starting  plants  for  transplanting,  and  the  plants 
allowed  to  grow  this  way  until  they  are  wanted  for  feed. 
Those  who  follow  this  practice  say  that  a  small  strip  of 
land  will  provide  more  green  feed  from  cabbage  grown 
this  way  than  from  rape,  chard  or  lettuce. 

In  the  northern  states  plants  for  early  cabbage  must 
be  started  in  hotbeds  in  February  or  March,  transplanted 
to  coldframes  when  they  are  two  or  three  inches  high,, 
and  grown  in  these  until  they  can  be  set  in  the  open 
ground  in  the  spring.  As  a  rule,  it  does  not  pay  one  who 
grows  only  small  quantities  of  cab- 
bage to  try  to  start  his  own  early 
plants.  The  trouble  is  only  war- 
ranted when  other  plants  are  to  be 
started  under  the  same  conditions. 
The  young  plants  require  close  and 
careful  attention,  and  if  they  do  not 
get  it  will  make  poor  growth  later. 
In  general,  therefore,  it  proves 
more  satisfactory  to  buy  good 
thrifty  plants  in  such  numbers  as. 
are  required.  In  the  South  early 
cabbage  may  be  started  in  the  open 
as  late  cabbage  is  in  the  North. 

In  growing  early  cabbage  for 
poultry  feed  it  is  generally  advisable 
to  give  plants  a  little  more  room 
than  is  allowed  by  market  gardeners 
who  force  them  to  get  the  crop  on 
the  market  as  early  as  possible  and 
all  at  the  same  time.  The  plants 
will  take  longer  to  head,  but  they 

will  hold  their  large  outer  leaves  better  and,  as  they  grow- 
larger,  make  considerably  more  feed.  The  rows  should  be 
from  24  to  30  inches  apart  and  the  plants  18  inches  apart 
in  the  tow. 

In  the  growing  of  cabbage  for  winter  storage  and  use 
it  is  desirable  to  have  the  plants  complete  their  full  growth 
just  as  hard  freezing  sets  in.  If  they  reach  full  size  too 
early  in  the  fall  many  of  the  heads  split,  preparatory  to- 
starting  a  seed  stalk.  Though  they  are  still  useful  as, 
poultry  feed,  a  larger  proportion  of  the  stalk  becomes 
woody  and  inedible,  thus  increasing  the  waste,  whiciv 
when  the  cabbage  is  harvested  at  just  the  right  stage 
is  limited  to  the  stump  below  the  head.  According  to 
locality  and  the  estimated  rate  of  growth,  main  crop 
cabbages  are  set  out  from  about  the  middle  of  June  until 
the  first  of  August. 

The  prime  points  in  growing  a  good  crop  of  cabbage 
are,  good  plants,  heavy  manuring,  thorough  cultivation 
of  the  land  as  long  as  tools  can  be  used  among  the  plants- 
without  too  much  breaking  of  the  outer  leaves,  and  a 
fairly  liberal  amount  of  moisture  throughout  the  period 
of  growth.  The  grower  who  buys  his  plants  should  take 
none  but  strong,  thrifty  looking  plants,  that  have  plainly 
not  been  stunted  in  the  seedbed  by  crowding  or  for  lack 
of  moisture,  or  allowed  to  wilt  while  in  the  market. 
Those  who  grow  their  plants  should  select  for  the  purpose 
a  rich,  quite  moist  plot  upon  which  no  cabbage  has  recent- 
ly been  grown,  or  manure  used  containing  cabbage  refuse. 


GROWING  FEED  FOR  POULTRY 


111 


The  seed  should  be  sown— not  too  thickly— in  rows  10  to 
12  inches  apart.  Seed  should  be  sown  to  produce  several 
times  the  number  of  plants  required,  thus  giving  a  good 
selection  when  transplanting.  The  young  plants  should 
be  cultivated  enough  to  keep  the  soil  loose  and  free  from 
weeds. 

Cabbages  do  best  on  strong  but  friable  black  soils, 
but  with  proper  management  and  liberal  applications  of 
manure  heavy  crops  can  be  grown  on  any  soil  that  is  in 
good  tillage  To  grow  cabbage  economically,  however, 
the  soil  mrsi:  be  reasonably  well  suited  to  the  crop. 

Tb<;  plot  selected  for  the  crop  should  be  one  not 
fo*  it  the  previous  season.  If  the  land  carries  a 
liberal  amount  of  fertilizer  from  previous  crops  and  i? 
in  a  very  good  state  of  tillage,  or  if  manure  is  available 
for  a  heavy  application  to  the  entire  piece,  it  will  be  least 
work  to  put  the  manure  on  broadcast  and  plough  under. 
On  lands  less  heavily  fertilized  to  begin  with,  better  re- 
sults may  be  obtained  by  furrowing  deeply  where  the 
rows  are  to  run.  manuring  in  the  furrows  and  turning  the 
soil  back  into  them  before  setting  out  the  plants.  For 
horse  cultivation  the  rows  should  be  from  3  to  4  feet  apart, 
and  the  plants  from  2  to  2l/2  feet  apart  in  the  rows.  The 
best  distances  will  depend  upon  the  variety  of  cabbage 
used  and  the  fertility  of  the  land,  and  can  be  determined 
only  by  experience  and  knowledge  of  both. 

Growing  Turnips 

The  advantage  of  growing  turnips  for  poultry  is  that 
a  crop  can  be  obtained  from  plantings  made  when  it  is  too 
late  to  st?rt  beets  or  ?et  out  cabbage.  The  time  for  sow- 
ing rutabagas  is  about  a  month  later  than  the  latest  date 
that  mangels  can  be  sown  with  expectation  of  a  fair  crop; 
the  common  varieties  are  sown  still  a  month  later — in  the 
last  of  July,  and  in  the  latitude  of  southern  New  England 
turnips  may  be  sown  as  late  as  the  first  of  September,  and 
give  a  good  supply  of  small  roots.  Unlike  mangels  and 
cabbage,  turnips  are  best  grown  on  light  soils  and  without 
fresh  manures.  The  best  land  fcr  them  is  land  that  is  in 
good  tillage  and  contains  a  moderate  amottrt  of  old 
manure  remaining  from  applications  for  previous  crops. 
Rutabagas  and  the  larger  varieties  of  other  turnips  should 
have  the  rows  18  to  24  inches  apart  and  be  thinned  to 
leave  the  plants  6  to  10  inches  apart  in  the  row,  ac- 
cording to  the  variety  and  the  time  of  planting.  When 
planted  too  late  to  make  full  growth  the  plants  can  stand 
closer. 

Growing  Stock  Carrots 

Carrots  are  not  often  especially  grown  for  poultry,  but 
if  one  happens  to  have  a  piece  of  sour  land  upon  which 
the  other  crops  mentioned  will  not  thrive,  it  will  often  be 
found  that  such  a  plot  will  grow  a  good  crop  of  carrots. 
The  earlier  it  is  planted  the  better  the  crop  will  be.  A 
fair  to  good  crop  is  often  obtained  from  sowings  made  as 
late  as  the  early  part  of  July.  For  these  late  sowings, 
however,  the  half-long  and  large  stump-rooted  carrots  are 
preferable  to  the  long  stock  carrots. 

Carrots  are  usually  sown  in  rows  from  14  to  20  or 
more  inches  apart,  according  to  size  and  season.  On  rich 
land  they  can  be  grown,  if  desired,  without  thinning.  The 
roots  will  not  be  as  large  or  as  uniform  in  size  as  when 
thinned  to  a  few  inches  apart,  but  the  total  weight  of  the 
crop  is  usually  considerably  greater. 

Storing  Vegetables  for  Poultry 

As  far  as  such  space  is  available  or  can  be  provided, 
permanent  cellars  are  best  and  most  convenient  for  storing 
cabbage  and  roots  for  poultry.  Barn  cellars,  special  root 
cellars,  and  incubator  cellars  are  equally  satisfactory.  The 
latter,  of  course,  are  available  for  this  purpose  only 


through  the  early  part  of  the  winter.  For  storage  of  cab- 
bage in  any  considerable  quantity  in  cellars,  shelving 
should  be  provided  upon  which  the  heads  as  taken  up  with 
the  loots  can  be  spread  in  single  layers.  In  large  heaps 
in  a  cellar,  cabbages  are  likely  to  heat  and  rot  badly. 
Roots  can  be  stored  in  cellars  either  in  bins  or  in  piles 
on  the  floor.  They  should  never  be  stored  with  tops  on, 
for  the  tops,  if  packed  at  all  close,  will  heat  and  rot  quickly 
and  communicate  the  rot  to  the  roots. 

Outside  pits  for  storing  cabbage,  and  sometimes  other 
roots,  serve  in  emergencies;  but  the  labor  of  making  them, 
the  tiouble  of  taking  stuff  from  them  as  wanted,  and  the 
larger  proportion  of  waste  in  stuff  so  stored,  make  the 
cost  of  building  a  pit  annually  for  a  few  years  equal  to  that 
of  a  permanent  root  cellar  of  considerably  more  capacity, 
and  immeasurably  more  convenient. 

Growing  Grain  for  Poultry 

The  question  of  growing  grain  for  poultry  is  on  a  very 
different  footing  from  that  of  growing  vegetables.  As  a 
rule,  the  only  way  that  one  can  be  sure  of  having  mangels 
and  cabbage  in  quantity  is  to  grow  them.  On  most  farms 
that  carry  large  stocks  of  poultry  the  greater  part  of  the 
grain  used  must  be  bought  because  there  is  neither  land 
nor  labor  available  to  grow  it.  Even  when  land  is  avail- 
able it  is  generally  difficult  to  get  the  labor.  Hence,  in 
general,  the  question  of  growing  grain  for  poultry  is  a 
question  of  using  to  advantage  the  manure  not  needed  for 
vegetable  crops,  fruit  or  grassland,  and  the  usual  practice 
is  to  plant  as  much  land  to  corn  as  can  be  conveniently 
taken  care  of,  or  as  the  available  manure  can  be  spread 
over.  The  average  cornfield  on  a  small  farm  devoted  to 
poultry  is  probably  under  two  acres.  A  great  many  are 
less  than  an  acre.  Occasionally  on  larger  farms  fields  of 
four  or  five  acres  are  planted.  These  corn  plots  are  not 
always  manured  with  collected  manure.  Frequently  they 
aie  on  land  close  to  the  poultry  buildings  and  have  only 
the  fertilizer  left  on  the  land  by  the  birds.  The  great 
advantage  of  planting  corn  in  such  places  is  that  it  affords 
shade  for  "the  poultry,  can  be  grown  on  the  same  land 
indefinitely  year  after  year,  and  in  any  medium-loose  and 
well-drained  soil  will  keep  the  land  pure  enough  to  prevent 
troubles  due  to  contaminated  soil. 

The  average  yield  of  corn  grown  under  either  of  the 
above  conditions,  cultivated  as  long  as  practical,  and 
then  used  for  range  for  fowls  or  chickens,  is  about  100 
bushels  to  the  acre.  It  is  seldom  under  60  or  70  bushels, 
and  occasionally  over  150.  Instances  have  been  reported 
of  more  than  200  bushels  to  the  acre,  but  this  was  accom- 
plished by  careful  spacing  of  the  stalks  in  the  rows  and 
extremely  high  culture.  Two  or  three  acres  at  average 
yields  provide  a  quantity  of  corn  that  materially  con- 
tributes to  the  feed  supply,  while  the  stalks,  cut  in  lengths, 
make  good  scratching  litter. 

Oats  are  often  grown  by  poultrymen  to  provide 
straw  for  scratching  litter,  and  incidentally  for  what 
grain  the  oats  threshed  by  the  birds  on  the  poultry 
house  floor  supply.  Oats,  however,  appear  to  be  of  much 
less  interest  to  those  limited  for  land  than  corn,  for  most 
poultry  farms  are  on  rather  light  land  not  especially 
suited  to  oats,  and,  besides,  the  poultry  must  be  kept  away 
from  the  oats  while  growing. 

Millet  is  sometimes  grown,  like  oats,  for  the  stra\v 
and  what  grain'  it  may  contain..  It  is  better  adapted  to 
light  soils  than  oats,  has  a  later  season,  and  stands 
drought  better. 

Growing  Green  Rye  For  Poultry 

Winter  rye  is  probably  the  most  widely  adaptable 
and  most  effective  crop  for  the  purification  of  foul 
ground.  It  also  affords  supplies  of  green  feed  in  open 
winters  and  in  the  early  spring.  It  can  be  sown  at  any 
time  that  the  ground  can  be  worked,  but  to  get  the  most 
benefit,  both  in  cleaning  the  land  and  in  supplies  of  green 
feed,  it  should  be  put  in  early  in  the  fall  so  that  it  will  be 
well  established  and  cover  the  ground  well  before  win- 
ter. Then  poultry  can  feed  on  the  rye  as  it  stands,  any 
time  that  the  snow  does  not  cover  it,  while  it  will  be 
ready  either  to  pasture  or  to  cut  for  feed  the  first  thing 
in  the  spring.  Rye  on  poultry  land  should  be  sown 
rather  more  thickly  than  as  ordinarily  grown  to  make 
long  straw. 


I  N  D  B  X 


Alfalfa,    Clover    and 18 

Analyses    of    Feeds    23 

Animal    By-Products    Feeds    18 

Ash,    Properties    of 10 

Bantams,    Feeding- 94 

Barley   and    Barley    Products    15 

Broilers,    Fattening    85 

Buckwheat  and   Buckwheat  Products   16 

Cabbage,    Growing    110 

Carrots,    Growing  Stock    Ill 

Capons,    Fattening    Large    Roasters    and    87 

Carbohydrates,    Properties    of    10 

Chickens  at  Various  Ages,   Weights  of  66 

Chickens,   First    Feeds   for   Young    48 

Chickens    From   Weaning   to   Maturity,    Rations    for 61 

Chickens    in    the    Fall,    Feeding 69 

Chick  Ration,   A  Simple   Standard 49 

Chick    Rations   Used    and    Recommended    By    Practical 

Poultry   Growers.    Some    56 

Chicks,   Feed   Consumed   by   Growing 67 

Feeding   Schedule    for    

How   Much    to    Feed 

in    Brooders.    Feeding    

in   the   Growing  Period,   Culling   and    Separating 65 

Special    Rations    for    Brooder    .-. 

with    Hens.    Feeding    -   47 

with    Hens.    Variations    in    Feeding    50 

Clover   and   Alfalfa   18 

Commercial   Mixed   Feeds — Their   Place   in 

Feeding    Economy    .* - 21 

Condimental    Poultry   Feeds   

Cooking   Apparatus,    Small    

Cooking   Apparatus,    Steam    

Corn  and   Corn   Products   

Cramming   Method   of   Fattening:,    The    89 

Crate    Fattening    - 

Cutters,     Bone     : 39 

Cutters,    Hay,    Fodder   and   Root   39 

Digestion    Coefficients   

Digestive    Organs    of    Poultry,    The    

Ducklings    for    Stock    Birds,    Feeding    ..  102 

Ducks,    Feeding    and    Fattening    

Feeding  Habits   of   

Rate    of    Growth    of    

Rations   for   , -.100 

Egg  Production,    Rations  for   

Eggs,    Feeding   Infertile   

in   Mashes,    Infertile .— -   42 

Exercise   to   Feeding   Methods,   Relation   of  

Exhibition,    Feeding    Birds   After    

Exhibition,    Feeding   in    Preparation   for   

Fats,    Properties    of    

Fattening    Broilers     

Crate    - 88 

Fryers    

Old    Fowls    8? 

Rations  for   Crtite   

Small  Roasters  8 

The    Cramming    Method    of    

Feed  Consumed   by  Laying  Hens,   Amount   of --   80 

Consumed  by  White  Plymouth  Rocks  in 

Growing  Period  67 

for   Poultry,    Growing   ....108 

Kitchen  and   Table  Waste   as  Poultry-- 
Mixers,   Mechanical    

Mixers,    Power    3 

Feeding   Formulas,   Development   of   

Feeds,    Commercial    Mixed — Their    Place    in    Feeding 21 

Condimental   Poultry   

Physical   Properties   of   11 

Raw   or  Cooked  

Fiber,  Properties  of  

Fowls,   Feeding   Habits   of   

Fruits  and  Vegetables  in   Mashes,   Soft   

Fryers,    Fattening    

Geese,  Average  Rations   for  

Feeding    and    Fattening    .. 

Feeding  Habits   of   - 

Growing  Large  Flocks  of  ..  —104 

General    Notes   on    Making   Moist   Mashes.— 
Goslings,    Fattening   —105 


Goslings,    Rate    of    Growth    of    ...  .....  -v 

Right,    Starting    the    ..................      .... 

Grain  for  Poultry.    Growing  .....  .'  ...........    .... 

Grains   and    Seeds,    Miscellaneous 
Green   Feed   for   Poultry,   Growing 
Guineas,    Feeding    .....  '.  .....................................  :. 


Hens,  Amount  of   Feed   Consumed   By  Laying 
Johnnycake   for   Chicks,   Making   Baked 
Kitchen  and  Table   Waste   as   Poultry   FeedU- 
Laying   Stock,    Summer   Management    of    ........ 


Machinery,    Shelling    and    Grinding \ 

Mangels,    Growing    , .\ 

Manure,  Value  of  Poultry   

Mash    by    Machine,    Mixing    Moist 

Equipment   for   Mixing  a   Pail   of   

Feeding,  Dry  

in  a  Pail,   Mixing  a   Scalded   

in   Mixing  Boxes,   Making  Large   Batches   of 

in  Pail,  Mixing  a  Cold  Moist  

in    Set-Kettles,    Mixing    Large    Batches    of 

Making    a    Cold 

Making  a  Scalded  

Systems,    Combining   Wet    and    Dry    

Mashes    and    Scratching    Mixtures,    Mixing    Dry 

General   Notes   on   Making    Moist    

Oat    Products    in 

Soft   Fruits   and   Vegetables    in    

Table    Scraps    in    

Methods   of    Feeding,    Some    Practical    Poin.s    About. 

Milk    

Milk    and    Milk    Products    

Mineral    Feeds    

Mixing  Dry  Mashes   and  Scratching  Mixtures 

Molting    Hens,    Feeding    


Nutritive    Ration,    How    to    Find    the 

Nutritive    Requirements    of    Poultry : 

Oat    Products    in    Mashes    

Oats    and    Oat    Products    

Oats,   Making   Sprouted   

Parasites    to    Feeding    and    Feeding    Results, 

Relation   of   Poultry   ' 


Peafowl,    Feeding    

Pheasants,    Feeding    

Protein,   Properties   of   

Pullets   for   Egg   Production,   Rations    for rt\ 

Pullets  for  Egg  Production,  The  Ideal   Way  to  Manage....  7 
Pullets,    When  to   Move   to    Winter   Quarters 7 

Range,    Brooder    Chicks    With    Good    .. 

Range,    What   Chicks   Can    Get   from    the    Farm....  •• 

Rations  and  Conditions,  How  Stock  Becomes  Adapted 
to    Certain    , 

Are    Adapted    to    Conditions,    How    . 

as    the    Weather    Moderates,    Modifying   

for    Chickens    From    Weaning    to    Maturity 

for    Crate    Fattening    

for    Egg    Production    

for   Pullets   for   Egg   Production 

Reported   by   Poultrymen    in    the    Nineties,    Selected—   7  ; 
Roasters  and  Capons.    Fattening  Large  .. 

Roasters,    Fattening    Small    

Rye  and  Rye  Products  

Rye    for    Poultry.    Growing    Green 

Scratching  Mixtures,   Mixing  Dry   Mashes   and... . 

Systems   of  Poultry   Feeding   

Table   Waste  as  Poultry   Feed,    Kitchen   and 

Turkeys,    Feeding   

Feeding   Habits    of    

Rations    for    

Turnips.    Growing   

Values  of  Feed  Mixtures,   To  Find   the.... 

Variety   in  Grain,   The   Question    of 

Vegetable    Feeds    

Vegetables    for    Poultry,    Storing    . 
Vegetables    in   Mashes,    Soft    Fruits    and    .. 
Vitamines,    Properties    of    . 

Water    Supply    in    Winter,    The    .. 
Weights   of   Chickens    at   Various   Ages.... 

What    Poultry    Eat    

Wheat  and   Wheat  Products  1< 


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